bo, 1964); and Frank E. Reynolds and Mani B. Reynolds’s
translation of Phya Lithai’s fourteenth-century cosmological
treatise, Three Worlds according to King Ruang (Berkeley,
1982).A useful introduction to the Therava ̄da tradition in Sri Lanka is
provided in Two Wheels of Dhamma, edited by Bardwell L.
Smith, Frank E. Reynolds, and Gananath Obeyesekere,
“American Academy of Religion Monograph Series,” no. 3
(Chambersburg, Pa., 1973). This introduction should be
supplemented by the R. A. L. H. Gunawardhana’s excellent
Robe and Plough: Monasticism and Economic Interest in Early
Medieval Sri Lanka (Tucson, 1979) and Kitsiri Malalgoda’s
Buddhism in Sinhalese Society, 1750–1900 (Berkeley, 1976).
For two books that deal with quite different dimensions of
the “contemporary” tradition, see Michael Carrithers’s The
Forest Monks of Sri Lanka: An Anthropological and Historical
Study (Delhi, 1983) and Richard F. Gombrich’s Precept and
Practice: Traditional Buddhism in the Rural Highlands of Cey-
lon (Oxford, 1971).
The most comprehensive overview of Therava ̄da Buddhism in
Burma is provided by Melford E. Spiro in his Buddhism and
Society: A Great Tradition and its Burmese Vicissitudes (New
York, 1970). Serious students will also want to consult E.
Michael Mendelson’s very important study, Sangha and State
in Burma: A Study of Monastic Sectarianism and Leadership,
edited by John Ferguson (Ithaca, N.Y., 1975); Emanuel
Sarkisyanz’s Buddhist Backgrounds of the Burmese Revolution
(The Hague, 1965); and Manning Nash’s The Golden Road
to Modernity: Village Life in Contemporary Burma (New
York, 1965).
The Therava ̄da tradition in Thailand has been comprehensively
studied by Stanley J. Tambiah in a trilogy of excellent books:
World Conqueror and World Renouncer (Cambridge, 1976),
Buddhism and the Spirit Cults in North-East Thailand (Cam-
bridge, 1970), and The Buddhist Saints of the Forest and the
Cult of Amulets (Cambridge, 1984). Other items of interest
include Donald K. Swearer’s Wat Haripuñjaya (Missoula,
Mont., 1976) and our “Sangha, Society and the Struggle for
National Integration: Burma and Thailand,” in Transitions
and Transformations in the History of Religions: Essays in
Honor of Joseph M. Kitagawa, edited by Frank E. Reynolds
and Theodore M. Ludwig (Leiden, 1980), pp. 56–88.
Studies that deal with Therava ̄da Buddhism in Laos and Cambo-
dia are much less adequate and are virtually all in French.
The best introductions are probably the articles on Bud-
dhism in the collections edited by René de Berval in France-
Asie entitled Présence du royaume Lao (Saigon, 1956), trans-
lated by Mrs. Tessier du Cros as Kingdom of Laos (Saigon,
1959), and Présence du Cambodge (Saigon, 1955). Two
books that provide overviews of sorts are Marcel Zago’s Rites
et cérémonies en milieu bouddhiste Lao (Rome, 1972) and Ad-
hémard Leclère’s Le bouddhisme au Cambodge (Paris, 1899).
The most important new studies are three short but erudite
works by François Bizot that highlight an important Tantric
influence in the Pali Buddhist traditions in Cambodia and
draw implications for our understanding of the Therava ̄da
tradition more generally. These have appeared under the ti-
tles Le figuier à cinq branches (Paris, 1976), “Le grotte de la
naissance,” Bulletin de l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient 66
(1979); and Le don de soi-même (Paris, 1981).
Further bibliographical information—including annotations of
many of the works cited here—can be obtained by consult-
ing the relevant sections in Guide to Buddhist Religion by
Frank E. Reynolds et al. (Boston, 1981), or in Reynolds’s
“Buddhism,” in A Reader’s Guide to the Great Religions, ed-
ited by Charles J. Adams, 2d ed. (New York, 1977),
pp. 156–222.
New Sources
Andaya, Barbara Watson. “Localising the Universal: Women,
Motherhood, and the Appeal of Early Theravada Bud-
dhism.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 33 (February
2002): 1–31.
Anderson, Carol. Pain and Its Ending: The Four Noble Truths in
the Theravada Buddhism Canon. Richmond, U.K., 1999.
Berkwitz, Stephen C. “History and Gratitude in Theravada Bud-
dhism.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 71 (Sep-
tember 2003): 579–605.
Burford, Grace G. Desire, Death, and Goodness: The Conflict of Ul-
timate Values in Theravada Buddhism. New York, 1991.
Carter, John Ross. On Understanding Buddhists: Essays on the
Theravada Tradition in Sri Lanka. Albany, 1993.
Gombrich, Richard Francis. Theravada Buddhism: A Social History
from Ancient Benares to Modern Columbo. New York, 1988.
Holt, John Clifford, Jacob N. Kinnard, and Jonathan S. Walters.
Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the Reli-
gious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia. New York, 2003.
Leve, Lauren G. “Subjects, Selves, and the Politics of Personhood
in Theravada Religion in Nepal.” Journal of Asian Studies 61
(August 2002): 833–861.
Swearer, Donald K. Becoming the Buddha: The Ritual of Image
Consecration in Thailand. Princeton, 2004.
Trainor, Kevin. Relics, Ritual and Representation in Buddhism: Re-
materializing the Theravada Tradition. New York, 1997.
FRANK E. REYNOLDS (1987)
REGINA T. CLIFFORD (1987)
Revised BibliographyTHÉRÈSE OF LISIEUX (1873–1897), epithet of
Thérèse Martin, French Carmelite nun and Catholic saint.
Thérèse was the youngest of nine children born to Louis and
Zélie Martin. When Thérèse was eight her family moved to
the small Norman town of Lisieux, where she was to spend
the remainder of her life, with the exception of one pilgrim-
age to Rome shortly before she entered the convent. Within
a few years of the family’s arrival in the town, Thérèse’s two
older sisters became nuns at the cloistered convent of Dis-
calced Carmelites in Lisieux, and at an early age Thérèse de-
cided to join them. Her first application to enter the convent,
made when she was fourteen, was rejected on account of her
age, but at fifteen she entered the convent.
In the cloister Thérèse exhibited unswerving fidelity to
the Carmelite rule and unfailing kindness to the convent’s
twenty-five nuns, some of whom had quite unattractive per-
sonalities. However, the full dimensions of her spiritual life9154 THÉRÈSE OF LISIEUX