there are shamans of the sky, of the water, and of the jungle.
The shaman initiation begins with a vision of Eˇsnuwérta,
who reveals the cosmos as well as the practices appropriate
to the work of the shamans. Another custom originating
from Eˇsnuwérta is called kaamták and has to do with a ritual
offering of food; it relates to the impurity of blood, among
other themes.
THE TUPI-GUARANÍ FAMILY. The Tupi-Guaraní language
family includes the Chiriguano of Bolivia and the Tapuí of
Paraguay.
The Chiriguano. The tale of the mythical twins
Yanderú Túmpa and Áña Túmpa is the most prevalent myth
among the Chiriguano (Miá) and appears in conjunction
with lunar mythology. The celestial supernatural being
Yanderú Túmpa made the cosmos and bestowed its goods
on the Chiriguano, at the same time instructing them in cul-
tural practices. He conceived and made Áña Túmpa, who,
because of envy, attempts to undermine all Yanderú
Túmpa’s works. Áña Túmpa received from his maker power
(imbapwére), which he in turn gives to other beings (áñas)
who aid him in his malignant activities. As a result the world
has undergone a profound alteration. It is now the actions
of the áñas that determine the condition of the Chiriguano
world, and they have introduced calamities such as illness
and death. The expression túmpa is difficult to comprehend,
but it appears to designate a quality that transforms the vari-
ous entities into “state beings.” The terms áña and túmpa de-
fine the supernatural nature of these beings, that is to say,
they emphasize that they are extraordinary.
The shaman and the sorcerer are both initiated by the
acquisition of power from the áñas. The initiation itself is
centered on the áñas. Due to their ambivalence, an initiate
can become a shaman (ipáye) if their intent is benevolent; if
their intent is malevolent, the initiate receives only malignant
power that causes misfortune to the people and the com-
munity.
Tapuí and Guasurangwe. The religion of the Tapuí
and the Guasurangwe, or Tapieté (an offshoot of the for-
mer), does not differ essentially from that of the Chiriguano;
the same structures of meaning and the same supernatural
beings may be observed.
LENGUA-MASCOY FAMILY. The Lengua-Mascoy language
group of Paraguay includes the Angaité, Lengua, Kaskihá,
and Sanapaná peoples.
The Angaité. The religious nature of the Angaité (Cha-
nanesmá) has undergone syncretism owing to their proximi-
ty to the Mascoy and Guaranian groups. Their mythology
makes reference to three levels—the underworld, the terres-
trial world, and the celestial world—all of which are inhabit-
ed by supernatural beings characterized by their ambivalent
actions toward humans. The deity of the dead, Moksohanák,
governs a legion of demonic beings, the enzlép, who pursue
the sick, imprison them, and carry them to the “country of
the dead,” which is situated in the west. At night it is even
possible for them to overpower passersby. The gabioamá or
iliabün act as the spirit familiars of the shaman, and with him
their role is ambivalent in a positive sense. For example, they
are in charge of recapturing and restoring the souls of the
sick.
According to Angaité myth, fire was obtained by a theft
in which a bird was the intermediary; it was stolen from a
forest demon, one of the iekDamá, who are anthropomorphic
but have only one leg. Also anthropomorphic is the soul-
shadow (abiosná), whose eyes are its distinguishing feature.
The concept of corporal material as such does not exist, ex-
cept for the iekDamá (“living cadaver” or “skeleton”), which
is what remains after death.
During the initiation process, the shaman goes into the
depths of the forest or to the banks of the river, where the
familiar spirits (pateaskóp or enzlép) come to him in a dream.
He communicates with the familiars through ecstatic dreams
and songs. His therapeutic labors include sucking harmful
agents from the bodies of the sick and applying vegetable
concoctions whose efficacy resides in their “bad smell.”
There are shamans with purely malignant intentions, such
as the mamohót, who are responsible for tragic deaths among
members of the group. The benevolent shaman is responsible
for discovering the identity of the bewitching shaman and
for quartering and burning the body of the victim as a restor-
ative vengeance. The Angaité do not have “lords” or “fathers”
of the species; the figures closest to this theme are Nekéñe
and Nanticá, male and female supernatural beings respec-
tively, who are anthropomorphic and whose realm is the
depths of the waters.
The Lengua. The anthropogenic myth of the Lengua
(Enlhít, Enslet) attributes the formation of giant supernatu-
ral beings and the ancestors of the Lengua to Beetle, who uti-
lized mud as primary material. After giving these beings a
human form, he placed the bodies of the first enlhíts to dry
on the bank of a lake, but he set them so close together that
they stuck to one another. Once granted life, they could not
defend themselves against the attacks of the powerful giants,
and Beetle, as supreme deity, separated the two groups.
Eventually the inability of the enlhíts to resist pursuit and
mistreatment by the giants became so grave that Beetle took
away the giants’ bodies. The giants’ souls gave birth to
kilikháma who fought to regain control of the missing bo-
dies, and it is for this reason that they torment present-day
humans.
The important Lengua myths include the origin of
plants and fire and the fall of the world. Ritual dramatiza-
tions of the myths are part of the celebrations for female pu-
berty (yanmána), male puberty (waínkya), the spring and au-
tumn equinoxes, the summer solstice, war, the arrival of
foreigners, marriage, and mourning.
Human reality consists of a “living soul” (valhók), whose
dream existence is important. At death, a person is transport-
ed to vangáuk, which is a transitory state that leads to the8634 SOUTH AMERICAN INDIANS: INDIANS OF THE GRAN CHACO