ture, we have yet to translate much of this information into concrete actions
to counter and mitigate these negative impacts. Large networks of protected
areas connected through reforestation and agroforestry projects (see examples
in Part V, this volume) and the promotion of less destructive uses of land sur-
rounding protected areas (such as elimination of pesticides and controlled use
of fire) are but some of the guidelines that should be part of a comprehensive
practical conservation plan. Unfortunately, many of these landscape conserva-
tion guidelines have not been translated into integrated public policy in coun-
tries where biodiversity is rich and at risk. The absence of legislation that links
the most recent scientific advances to land use and economic development
policies and regulations puts any sustainable conservation strategy at risk.
Once geographic priority areas are established, the challenge becomes
implementing effective conservation in these regions. Although the baseline of
site conservation has been establishing protected areas, many other compo-
nents are needed for long-term ecosystem and biodiversity protection. These
include the use of sustainable development projects and other innovative pro-
posals such as conservation concessions (Rice et al. 2001; Chapter 7, this vol-
ume), landscape corridors for conservation, and improved use of the landscape
matrix surrounding less degraded areas. Sustainable agroforestry practices can
play an important role in such strategies.
Traditionally, conservationists have focused only on patch-scale landscape
dynamics. Unfortunately, geographic limitations of scale, which place conser-
vation and development goals in competition with each other, have impeded
many past efforts to combine conservation and development objectives.
Therefore, in addition to these conservation approaches, efforts are needed to
broaden conservation applications to a landscape scale and expand the focus
of conservation planning to promote conservation and development goals
together and address both ecological and economic needs (Fonseca et al. in
preparation).
Protected areas provide a foundation for long-term conservation by
directly securing biodiversity. Criticisms of reserves include many cases of inef-
fective protection from human activities such as logging and hunting. In the
current environmental crisis, landscape conservation must be viewed in light
of the major global changes including global climate change, pollution,
invasive species, and other human-related problems. The scale of human dis-
turbance is such that almost no area is unaffected, which means that the con-
servation value of most areas can be improved. This includes severely degraded
landscapes, such as fallow agricultural fields, which can be integrated into the
overall landscape conservation of a region. Sustainable development projects
can prove useful for conservation efforts, although many limitations exist,
such as with forestry programs.
It is evident from research on protected areas in tropical countries that
although governments are effective in their conservation efforts despite their
- Biodiversity Conservation in Deforested and Fragmented Tropical Landscapes 27