Volume 10 7

discrimination in public accommodations linked to
interstate commerce such as restaurants and hotels.
In 1965, the Voting Rights Act was passed, pro-
hibiting local governments or individuals from in-
terfering with the right of blacks to register and
vote.

Although King advocated non-violence, it was
a bloody decade. Black churches were bombed,
civil rights workers were killed, the police assaulted
demonstrators, and riots broke out. Other move-
ments also gained momentum in the 1960s, such
as the women’s movement, the gay rights move-
ment, the Native American movement, and the
Anti-War movement. It was a time of intense en-
ergy on the part of young people all across the
country. College campuses became radical orga-
nizing grounds for protest movements. The desire
to change society was felt in many social arenas,
including politics. Many regarded president John
F. Kennedy as a social reformer; but his presidency
was cut short when he was assassinated in 1963.
Lyndon Johnson was his successor. Johnson
wanted to create the “great society”; he started
many of the entitlement programs we still have to-
day, such as welfare. As the decade wore on and
the 1970s were ushered in, the activity in Vietnam
continued to increase. Robert F. Kennedy, Martin

Luther King, and Malcolm X were all assassinated

in the late sixties. The mood of optimism and en-

ergy slowly began to shift in the 1970s as inflation

rose and veterans came back from Vietnam to find

themselves outcasts. The fight for civil rights on

part of African-Americans and other minorities

continued, and still continues today.

Critical Overview

Madgett is often hailed as a teacher and publisher

as much as she is celebrated as a poet. She taught

in Detroit area schools for much of her life and has

spent over twenty years as a professor of creative

writing and African-American Literature at East-

ern Michigan University in Ypsilanti, Michigan. In

1972 she began Lotus Press, which focused on pub-

lishing work by black writers who were rejected by

white editors and publishers. Madgett’s work in

particular was often refused because it was either

“not black enough” or “too black,” which meant

that it either wasn’t direct enough about the suf-

ferings of African Americans, or it was too angry

and volatile. Her skill was apparent from the ear-

liest days, and she was referred to by Saunders Red-

Alabama Centennial

Compare

&

Contrast

• 1950s:Many public schools remained segre-
  gated into the 1950s, as established by the 1896
  Plessy v. Fergusonruling that declared “sepa-
  rate but equal” as the guiding standard for seg-
  regation. The “Separate but equal” standard was
  overturned in Brown v. Board of Educationin
  1954 when segregation of public schools was
  outlawed.
  1970s:Bussing, the practice of moving students
  to different districts to promote racial integra-
  tion, becomes a means for integrating school
  districts that are predominantly white.
  Today:Public education continues to reflect
  economic status, with larger city schools facing

financial issues compared with wealthier, sub-

urban school districts.

• 1960s:Strong and charismatic civil rights lead-
  ers emerge nationally. Martin Luther King
  proved integral in starting the nonviolent action
  movement, with peaceful sit-ins, marches, and
  protests aimed at change. Malcolm X was a
  leader in the Black Nationalist movement to em-
  power African-Americans. The Black Panthers
  were a militant group for the rights of African-
  Americans.
  Today: No lone figure dominates as the
  spokesperson in the struggle for equality and
  justice.