the dynastic caliphates: the umayyads and the reforms 129However, it never surrendered. Indeed, it was not until 1453 that
the Byzantine capital was taken and Byzantine rule in Constantinople
was overthrown by the Turks under Muœammad II “the Conqueror”.
Under the Umayyads the Muslim army, nevertheless, had succeeded
in putting some strategic islands under its control: Cyprus, Rhodes
and Crete, which helped put the Mediterranean trade route under
the partial control of the Islamic state (Hitti, 1963). On the western
front, Muslims had more long-term success than that in the north.
By 682 the Byzantines were defeated in North Africa and the Islamic
army penetrated the North African coast as far as the Atlantic.
However, a revolt by the inhabitants of the area, the Berbers, erupted,
which led to the taking of North Africa out of the control of the
Umayyad government for some years. By 705 the North African
coast was regained by the central government and the Umayyads
restored their control over the area permanently (ibid.).
The control of North Africa and the successful recruitment of the
Berbers in the Islamic army helped extend Islamic rule towards the
Iberian Peninsula, Spain. In 711, the Muslim expedition crossed
the Mediterranean strait into the peninsula, which, with further rein-
forcement, led to the fall of the Visigothic kingdom to the Berber
Arab army (Œassan, 1959). However, Charl Martel interrupted the
advance of the Muslim army between Tours and Poitiers in 732.
On the eastern front, the Umayyad Caliph continued their expan-
sionist plans. After subjugating the revolt in Iraq successfully, they
dispatched two troops to the east: one marched from Khurasàn to
the valley of the Indus and the other went to the northeast borders
of Khurasàn, the countries of “beyond the river”. By 713, the Islamic
conquests reached the lower valley and delta of the Indus, captur-
ing Multan, Lahore and Kangara in the north, and al-Daybul on
the Indian Ocean. On the “beyond the river” front, Balkh fell in
705, Bukhara was conquered in 709, and Samarqand, Khwarism
and Farghanah were put under the Arab domain by 715. By the
occupation of Tashkand in 751, under the Abbasids, Muslims estab-
lished their authority in Central Asia (ibid.). The removal of poli-
tical barriers helped, and with the security of trade routes and
development, this aided administrative and economic reform and
promoted trade between the provinces of the empire, as will be
examined shortly.