political fragmentation and cultural diversity 251al-Ghazàlìfrom the others in this respect is that he provided a quan-
titative measurement of the levels of consumption specifying the quan-
tity one should consume of wheat and the like in each level. (Vol.
III, p. 94). The quantification of these levels, however, are deter-
mined from his point of view as a flùfìwho would be content with
very little in comparison with non-flùfìs who might be aiming to
achieve a greater quantity to meet their full satisfaction. Further-
more, the consumer in his view should refrain from consumption if
the object consumed is surrounded with doubt as its lawfulness, even
if the jurists may permit it. The level of pure piety should be the
ultimate objective, which may lie in its religious requirement and
adherence to the rules above, which might be regarded as a moder-
ate level. For example, flùfìs who are renowned for wearing rough
clothing, eating less than others, and not aiming for realising great
satisfaction from worldly physiological needs, may not be regarded
as the norm in the eyes of other Muslims. Like those before him,
basic needs are defined to include clothing, housing, as well as food
and drink. Al-Ghazàlìdistinguished between four levels of piety. The
first is the piety which is required for attestation of the truth. The
second level of piety is that of a pious man; he saves himself even
from doubt whether a certain thing is lawful or unlawful. The third
level of piety is that of the God-fearing man who gives up even a
lawful thing for fear of falling into an unlawful one. The fourth level
is the level of piety of the extremely religious man who gives up
everything for the sake of God. (Vol. 1, p. 35). Marriage is impor-
tant, but it does not seem to be as clearly specified in the basic
needs as with al-A›fahànì.
On Earnings, Trade and Commerce
At the outset, and driven by his flùfìconvictions, al-Ghazàlìstarted
his chapter on earnings, trade and commerce by stating, “Earning
is not the aim of human life but it is a means to an end”, (Vol. II,
p. 53). This signals two distinct messages: moderation in spending
time and effort on earning a livelihood, and wealth is not to be accu-
mulated or accumulated for itself. Proper human motivation should
not be geared purely towards seeking wealth. “There are three kinds
of men”, al-Ghazàlì states, “(a) one kind forgets the return and
makes the earnings of livelihood as the sole object of his life, he is
one of those who will be destroyed, (b) another kind is the one who