beinvoluntary(i.e. in termsof personalexposure),catastrophic(i.e. affecting
largenumbersof peopleat the sametime)orunnatural(i.e. technologicalin
nature). Thesepsychological factorsincrease the threat valueof somehazards,
and reducethe samefactorin others.The perceivedbenefits associatedwitha
particular hazard may, under certain circumstances, offset perceived risk
(Alhakamiand Slovic,1994).Flynnet al.(1994)haveusedthe psychometric
approach to explain the apparentdifferences betweenlay and expert perceptions
of risk.
Thispointsat a weighing of risk factors in a complex multidimensional and
potentially holistic way. In general, lay perceptionsare oftenricherand more
complex than perceptionheldby experts, involvingmore constructs(albeit
psychological in origin)and multidimensionality (Flynnet al., 1994). For
example, consider the case of voluntary versus involuntary exposure to a
particular hazardsuchas radiation. Mostindividualsare moretolerant of the
potentialrisksof bothmedical and naturalradiationcomparedwiththe risks
theyassociate withthe nuclearindustry, becauseof the following:
∑ Artificial radiation addsrisk to a situation whereit was not presentbefore.In
comparison, naturalradiation is tolerableas it represents part of the natural
order(Frewer, 1999a). Thuspublicnegativityto the nuclear industrymay not
be equalto theirenthusiasm regardingattempts to mitigatethe risksof natural
radiation.
∑ Medicalradiation is perceivedto havea benefit to the populationgenerally.
Thismaynot be the casefor the nuclearindustry,where financialreward is
perceived by the public to accrue to companyshareholders,but the risks
accrueto the generalpublicand the environment.
In verybroadterms,it may be useful to distinguishbetween two categories of
potentialhazard,those related totechnologyand thoserelatedtolifestylechoices
(Mileset al., 2004).Perceptionsof technology risksare shaped by perceptions
that the risks are out of control, are unnatural and are somehow adding
unnecessarilyto the risk environment. Muchactivityin the areaof technology
acceptance has,in the past,focusedon aligning publicviewswiththose of
expertsin orderto alignthe two perspectives (Frewer,1999b).Morerecently,
therehas beenincreased emphasis on getting the publicinvolvedin the debate
abouthow to manageand commercialise technologicalinnovations(Rennet al.,
1995).
6.2.1 Optimisticbias
In contrast to technologicalrisks,where the publicestimates the risks as higher
thanexperts, lifestylehazardsare associated withhighlevelsofoptimistic bias
orunrealistic optimism(Weinstein, 1980).People tend to rate theirown personal
risksfroma particular lifestyle hazardas beingless when comparedwithan
`average' memberof society, or indeed compared with someoneelsewith
similardemographiccharacteristics (for a reviewin the foodarea see Milesand
Consumerperceptionsof risksfromfood 105