∑ Glasswashing:
± it was commonfor glassesto be dipped onlyin dirtywaterbeforebeingre-
used.
∑ Personal cleanlinessamongfoodhandlers:
± foodhandlers regularly lickedtheirfingerswhen dealingwithwrapping
paper;
± theyblewinto paperbagsto open them;
± butchersoftenfailedto washtheirhandsaftereviscerating animals;
± the habit of fingering the noseand/or mouth, whileserving food,was
common.
Whenwrappedbread was introduced intothe UK,the innovationproved
unpopular among housewives.Onereasonwas that the wrappersbecamedirty
and peoplefailed to realisethat,without wrappers,the dirt wouldbe on the
bread(Hardy,1999).Hand-washingfacilities were mostly unavailable and,
where present, were rarely used initially. Toilet paper,too, was accepted
reluctantly and,when it becameavailable, the qualitywas verypoor(White-
bread,1926).Onlywhena new Food and DrugAct was introduced in the UK in
1938,was it necessaryto use hygienic conditionsand practicesin handling,
wrapping anddelivering food, and adequate hand-washingfacilities were
required for foodhandlers.
A clear breakthroughin publichealth was the processingand disposalof
domestic and sewage wastes,in conjunction with the purification of water
supplies to ensurethat any pathogenspresentwerenot passedto consumers via
drinking water. Also,sanitary microbiologists wereappointedto inspectfood
processing and eatingestablishmentsto ensurethat proper food-handlingpro-
cedures were followed. These made a significant contribution to the
development of appropriatehygienestandards.
1.2 Definitionsof hygiene
In ancient times,it was clearthat diseases could be overcome,eitherby actively
curing(Asclepius) or throughthe powerof cleanliness(Hygeia).Curing diseases
withthe use of medicineswas traditionally the role of the physician.Preventing
diseases, on the other hand,becamethe domain of the hygienist.Thefirst
definitionsof `hygiene'are derivedfromthe workof the goddess Hygeia:
∑ healingthroughcleanliness'; ∑the sciencedealingwiththe preservation and promotion of health'.
In the course of time,medicinesbecamethe principal means of curingdiseases.
However, because of the manyfailuresduring the 18thand 19thcenturies,
hygienere-emerged as the key discipline. In the USA, the `Natural Hygiene'
movement cameinto being.The mainobjectiveof this science-based movement
was not to treatthe effect,but to removethe causeof a disease(treating the
Introduction 11