The catalogue of Qing conquests in Mongolia, Xinjiang and
Tibet is enough to establish that, like several earlier dynasties (Tang,
Yuan, Ming), it was expansionist in its determination to bring non-
Chinese peoples under Chinese rule. Outer barbarians were thereby
converted to inner barbarians and given the opportunity to adopt ele-
ments of superior Chinese culture, be subject to the benevolence of
the Son of Heaven, and be part of and benefit from the Chinese
moral/political order. In other words, the justification for Qing imperi-
alism was, like that of previous dynasties, couched in terms of the
Chinese worldview. This did not differ radically from the ‘white man’s
burden’ justification given for nineteenth century European imperial-
ism—and the outcome for subject peoples turned out to be very
similar.
Later invasions to ‘punish’ Burma and Vietnam were repulsed
(see below), leaving China’s southern frontiers much as they were. The
Qing conquest of Taiwan, however, extended the empire some 300
kilometres west to within 400 kilometres of the principal Philippines
island of Luzon. Taiwan thus provided China with both a trading base
and an offshore bastion whose value in terms both of defence and
offence would not become fully evident until three centuries later.
In the meantime, Taiwan provided new opportunities for Chinese
colonisation.
The early Qing emperors followed the precedent of the Ming,
whose ceremonial diplomacy they adopted. Tributary countries were
informed that a new dynasty ruled under Heaven and were invited to
return the imperial seals given them by the Ming. The Qing published
their own Collected Statutes, stipulating how tribute should be pre-
sented and how accompanying trade should be conducted. Tributary
missions were not to number more than 100 persons, only twenty of
whom were permitted to proceed to Beijing from the place of entry.
No more than three ships were permitted to enter port, each with a
maximum of 100 men. No additional accompanying ships were
allowed to dock, nor was any vessel not accompanying an official
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia