Pattani. Cambodia fell into the same category, once its status had been
reduced to a vassal jointly of Siam and Vietnam.
Much of the information available to the Chinese court on
European activities in Southeast Asia came from Chinese merchants.
The repeal of the Qing prohibition on overseas trade stimulated a new
wave of Chinese migration into the region. Many went to peninsula
Siam and the Malay sultanates to mine tin and grow pepper, but
increasing numbers were attracted to territories under European
administration. There they met with a mixed reception. We have seen
the fate of the Chinese in the Philippines. In Java, Chinese settlement
increased substantially, so that by 1739 there were as many as 15 000
Chinese living in and around Batavia alone.^8 Such were their numbers
that the Dutch grew fearful, and planned to ship some off to Sri Lanka.
Believing they were to be drowned at sea, many Chinese rose in rebel-
lion. Thousands were massacred, as the rebellion spilled over into the
territory of Mataram and the VOC intervened.
The Qing entered into direct contact with countries of the
‘Western Ocean’ through agreeing to receive official missions from
Portugal (1670, 1678) and Holland (1656, 1667, 1686). All sought
increased trading rights, for which they were prepared to perform the
full kowtow as prescribed by Chinese ceremonial, and even to accept
nominal tributary status. All, however, were unsuccessful. The only
European power with which the Qing deigned to enter into negoti-
ations leading to a treaty was Russia (in 1689). The Treaty of
Nerchinsk was designed, however, at least as far as the Chinese were
concerned, to keep yet another Central Asian foe at arm’s length, and
to control trade. The treaty was concluded, in other words, in the
context of Qing policy towards Central Asia.
The rise of Dutch power in Southeast Asia in the eighteenth
century was at first of little consequence to China. The Qing court felt
no need to accommodate the demands of Dutch envoys because
Holland, despite its monopoly of trade to Europe, did not threaten
Chinese trading interests. Throughout the eighteenth century, the
Enter the Europeans