It was the simultaneous rise of Siamese and Chinese national-
ism in the early twentieth century that exacerbated dissension
between the two communities. Two developments in particular
engendered distrust. One was the 1909 Qing Nationality Law, which
continued in force under the Republic and laid the basis for China’s
claim to the loyalty of Chinese abroad—to the extent that seats were
reserved for them in the National Assembly. In 1913 the Siamese
passed their own Nationality Act which added nationality through
birth in the country (jus soli) to nationality through descent in the
male line (jus sanguinis). ‘Chinese’ born in Siam were therefore
Siamese, and the only Chinese were those born in China. From 1919
to 1937, the latter more than doubled to over 700 000, though the
number who could claim Chinese nationality under Chinese law was
at least twice that.^6
The second development was the higher proportion of women
among the increasing number of Chinese immigrants, especially after
- As a result, Chinese–Siamese intermarriage decreased, and
Chinese cultural identity was given greater emphasis, even by assimi-
lated Sino–Siamese. This was similar to what was happening elsewhere
in Southeast Asia, especially in Malaya and Indonesia where assimi-
lated, locally born peranakanChinese became more culturally aware of
their Chinese roots under the influence of totok(China-born) immi-
grants. Siamese concern over migration levels, however, never
translated into effective control measures.
Attempts by the GMD to gain political support among overseas
Chinese were resented by the Siamese government, which saw it as
interference in Siamese affairs. GMD political activists came to Siam
to establish branches of the party and raise funds for its struggle against
the warlords. As elsewhere in Southeast Asia, reunification of China
became a popular political cause among Siamese Chinese. By 1928,
active GMD membership stood at around 20 000^7 and delegates from
Siam attended GMD congresses in China. As much as anything, it was
fear that the Chinese community would become an extension of the
The changing world order