Only one of the ‘five principles’ (PANCASILA) to which all Indone-
sians were expected to give assent referred to belief in God. The other
four covered humanitarianism, national unity, democracy and social
justice. Even so, if Indonesians looked abroad, most looked to Mecca
rather than Beijing. For centuries the islands had traded with China,
but Indonesians had never considered themselves part of the Chinese
world order. During this time Indonesia had become home to a large
overseas Chinese community that had proved reluctant to support the
Indonesian nationalist cause, and whose links with China were viewed
with suspicion by the Muslim majority. In the early years of independ-
ence, it was the PRC’s attitude towards overseas Chinese that was of
most concern to the government in Jakarta.
The overseas Chinese were a problem, too, for the PRC. Beijing
had inherited a legacy of suspicion throughout Southeast Asia, thanks
mainly to the activities of the GMD and the policies of the National-
ist government, which had set back assimilation virtually everywhere.
Chinese had been encouraged to see themselves as Chinese first and
Southeast Asians second, and to direct their primary loyalties to
China. The GMD had viewed overseas Chinese communities as a
means of extending Chinese influence in the region, and as a resource
for the government of China. Indeed, it had viewed them as citizens of
China and thus under its own jurisdiction, a policy that had caused
irritation, as we have seen, not only to colonial authorities, but also to
the Thai government.
The PRC inherited this position, but tended to be more circum-
spect than the GMD. It accepted responsibility for protecting overseas
Chinese, just as would any government, but was limited in doing so by
lack of representation. In both Thailand and the Philippines, anti-
Chinese discrimination continued. Schools were closed and
newspapers censored. Several thousand Chinese were deported from
Malaya for involvement with the Malayan Communist Party. Even in
Indonesia, with which Beijing did have diplomatic relations, little
could be done to prevent discrimination.
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia