and heavy mortars, thousands of tons of ammunition, not to mention
food, medical supplies, military uniforms, vehicles and other equip-
ment. What was even more significant was the involvement of
Chinese advisers in military planning for every major offensive cam-
paign, including the Vietminh invasions of Laos in 1953 and 1954
(agreed upon as part of a grand strategic plan during a secret visit to
Beijing by Ho Chi Minh in September 1952), and the battle of Dien
Bien Phu that effectively brought the war to an end.
The extent to which Chinese advice was accepted and acted
upon is still hotly disputed. The Vietnamese maintain that Chinese
advice was often inappropriate, especially ‘human wave’ offensives
modelled on Chinese tactics used in Korea. Friction occurred at times
between Chinese advisers and Vietnamese commanders. Most Viet-
namese venom, however, has been reserved for China’s role not in
prosecuting the war, but in the peace agreement that concluded it. The
Vietnamese argue that it was Chinese machinations at Geneva in 1954
that deprived them of total victory against the French, and so con-
demned the Vietnamese people to twenty more years of conflict and
suffering.^8
The scene was set for the Geneva Conference on Indochina by
conclusion of an armistice in Korea and victory at Dien Bien Phu.
The DRV delegation went to Geneva hoping not only to secure the
independence of Vietnam under communist rule, but also for a share
in government for the Vietminh-backed revolutionary movements
in Laos and Cambodia, formed after the Indochina Communist
Party was disbanded in 1951. China attended with very different
priorities in mind. The PRC still feared direct American military
intervention in Indochina. But China needed a breathing space in
which to concentrate on internal political matters and economic
development. Beijing was prepared, therefore, to back the Soviet
Union’s policy of ‘peaceful coexistence’ (foreshadowed as early
as October 1952)—provided that ensured security along China’s
southern border.
Communism and the Cold War