more and more these were encouraged to regard China as a source of
inspiration rather than actual assistance.
An early target for improved relations was Malaysia, a state unin-
volved in the Indochina conflict. China first dropped opposition to
Malaysia itself, which Beijing had previously denounced as a ‘neo-
colonialist, imperialist plot’, then embraced Malaysia’s proposal for a
Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality (ZOPFAN) in Southeast Asia.
Both moves made sense. Malaysia was a fait accompli and, if imple-
mented, ZOPFAN would reduce the presence of both superpowers and
so increase Chinese influence. Beijing also attempted to woo Indone-
sia, but with little response from Jakarta.
In the early 1970s China had no diplomatic relations with any of
the five members of ASEAN. The breakthrough came in mid-1974,
when Malaysia and China formally recognised each other. A joint
communiquéreiterated the principles of peaceful coexistence, includ-
ing non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, a clause Malaysia
took to apply specifically to the Communist Party of Malaya, even
though no reference was made in the negotiations to party-to-party
relations. As it was, the CCP continued to publish its communications
with the CPM, much to Malaysian annoyance, until the latter finally
gave up its armed struggle in 1989. Another clause (this one discussed
at length) eliminated dual nationality, an undertaking given legal sub-
stance in China’s 1980 Nationality Law. Even then China continued
to reserve a welcome for Southeast Asians of Chinese ancestry that
treated them more as kin than foreigners.
In 1975 the Philippines became the second ASEAN state to
recognise Beijing when President Ferdinand Marcos signed a similar
joint communiqué. As for Malaysia, recognition of the PRC meant
accepting that there was only ‘one China’. For Manila with its close
ties to Taibei, this was a painful but necessary move, even though trade
relations continued to flourish with Taiwan. Trade was also a factor in
relations with the PRC. China sold oil to the Philippines at ‘friendship
prices’ during the world oil crisis, and continued to do so. Even so, the
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia