Ames, Thinking Through Confucius(State University of New York Press,
New York, 1987). No comprehensive study exists of the worldviews of
early Southeast Asian kingdoms, but Lorraine Gesick, ed., Centers,
Symbols, and Hierarchies: Essays on the Classical States of Southeast Asia
(Yale University Press, New Haven, 1983), provides some indication.
The idea of the mandalaand the amalgam of indigenous and Indian
notions that underlies it are discussed in O. W. Wolters, History,
Culture and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives, revised edn (Institute
of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, 1999).
On strategic culture, for China see Alastair Iain Johnston, Cultural
Realism: Strategic Culture and Grand Strategy in Chinese History(Prince-
ton University Press, Princeton, 1995); and for Southeast Asia (and
China), Ken Booth and Russell Trood, eds, Strategic Cultures in the
Asia–Pacific Region(Macmillan, London, 1999). On Chinese military
thinking, see Ralph Sawyer, The Seven Military Classics of Ancient
China(Westview, Boulder, 1993); and Chen-Ya Tien, Chinese Military
Theory: Ancient and Modern(Mosaic Press, Oakville, NY, 1992).
On early Chinese expansion south, see C. P. Fitzgerald, The
Southern Expansion of the Chinese People (White Lotus, Bangkok,
1993); Ying-shih Yu, Trade and Expansion in Han China: A Study in the
Structure of Sino–Barbarian Economic Relations(University of Califor-
nia Press, Berkeley, 1967); and Edward H. Schafer, The Vermilion Bird:
T’ang Images of the South(University of California Press, Berkeley,
1967). Chinese attempts to preserve the tributary system are examined
in Morris Rossabi, ed., China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and
Its Neighbours, 10th–14th Centuries(University of California Press,
Berkeley, 1983).
On early trading relations between China and Southeast Asia,
the classic study is Wang Gungwu, The Nanhai Trade(Times Academic
Books, Singapore, 1998), and for early Southeast Asian commerce
O. W. Wolters,Early Indonesian Commerce: A Study of the Origins of
Srivijaya(Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1967) and its sequel
The Fall of Srivijaya in Malay History(Asia Major Library, London,
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