This is because the Chinese envoys described what they saw and
learned through Chinese eyes. Theirs was a centrally organised king-
dom, in which a powerful court appointed officials to administer
districts and provinces in the name of the emperor. But Southeast
Asian kingdoms were not so organised and administered, for they owed
their philosophy of government and political structure not to China,
but to India.
Powerful empires did arise in India—the Mauryan empire
under Ashoka in the third century BCE and the Gupta empire under
Chandragupta II in the second century CE are obvious examples. But
these empires were constructed through the incorporation of neigh-
bouring kingdoms as functioning units. Often the ruling family would
remain in place, provided they acknowledged the suzerainty of their
new overlord. The empire was held together through formal oaths of
loyalty backed by regular payment of tribute, the provision of troops
when called upon, a well-developed network of spies and informers,
and the capacity of the centre to punish any ruler tempted to renounce
his allegiance. When the centre was weak, particularly during succes-
sion disputes, outlying territories tended to break away and declare
their independence. Often a new ruler, preoccupied with establishing
his own right to rule, could do nothing but let them go. Frontiers were
thus much less stable than in a centrally administered empire like
China.
The Indian model was eminently suitable for Southeast Asia.
By the early centuries CE, centres of power had developed in several
areas where agricultural resources were more extensive and population
could expand. There ‘men of prowess’ arose who enforced their rule
over neighbouring territories.^2 A powerful regional ruler might appoint
his sons to rule outlying areas. When he became frail or died, however,
these same sons would often contest the succession, backed by com-
peting powerful families and court factions. Kings used every means to
concentrate power by demanding tribute from regional leaders and
requiring them to serve at court.
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia