temporarily eclipsed Canton as the principal terminus for the
Nanyang trade.
The collapse of the Tang provided an opportunity for the
independent-minded Sino–Vietnamese elite in Jiao-zhi to break free of
imperial control. During the years of political and military turmoil that
marked the early tenth century, Jiao-zhi became, to all intents and
purposes, an autonomous province. Finally in 966, six years after the
founding of the Song dynasty, Dinh Bo Linh proclaimed his inde-
pendence. Exhausted after years of warfare, and aware that Bo Linh
commanded a powerful army, the Song court accepted the de facto
independence of Vietnam. Bo Linh was astute enough to follow diplo-
matic protocol by requesting conferral of Chinese titles. His son, in
whose name official communications with the Song court were con-
ducted, was confirmed as ‘Peaceful Sea Military Governor’ with the
additional title of ‘An-nam [Peaceful South] Protector General’. Bo
Linh himself was granted the curious title ‘King of Jiao-zhi Prefecture’.
These claims and titles tell us much about relations between
China and Vietnam, and the worldview both shared. By proclaiming
himself emperor, Bo Linh was asserting independence from China, but
not thereby equality with the Son of Heaven. He was well aware both
that this would be quite unacceptable to the Chinese, and that
Vietnam could not escape being part of the Chinese world order. This
was made evident in the edict conferring his title, where Bo Linh’s
relationship to the Song emperor was described as that of an obedient
son to a benevolent father.^8 By describing Bo Linh as King of Jiao-
zhi Prefecture, the Song court was on the one hand accepting his
status as on a par with other rulers of independent kingdoms, while
on the other hand reminding him that his territory remained, in
some sense, part of the empire. In other words, it left open the pos-
sibility (or threat) of returning Jiao-zhi to imperial administration.
The titles conferred on Bo Linh’s son defined the role a Vietnamese
ruler was expected to perform within the Chinese world order. He was
to accept Chinese suzerainty and keep the peace on the empire’s
Early relations