again in 1281, both times with disastrous results, thanks to the ‘divine
wind’ (kamikaze) that sank so many Mongol ships.
The next Mongol invasion by land was directed not at Vietnam,
however, but at Burma. The first Yuan envoys despatched to King
Narathihapate of Pagan (reigned 1256–87) came from the Mongol
governor of Yunnan. They must have been received by the Burmese
with some surprise. Only twice before had the court of Pagan dis-
patched what were probably goodwill missions to China (to the Song
in 1004 and 1106). It is not recorded what either brought, so we have
no idea whether the Burmese intention was to stimulate trade or prop-
agate Buddhism. The Song knew nothing of Pagan, except that it was
a large kingdom. Burmese gifts were nevertheless recorded as tribute,
and Pagan took its place as an outer barbarian state whose rulers had
given due recognition to the Son of Heaven. So when the Yuan
dynasty took power, Pagan was informed that tribute was due. This the
Burmese (no doubt interpreting ‘tribute’ in the Southeast Asian sense
of the word) refused to provide, though eventually a Burmese mission
did accompany the Mongol envoys back to Beijing, ostensibly to
worship a tooth of the Buddha, but more likely to gain time and infor-
mation about this new and aggressive Chinese dynasty.
Khubilai personally received the Burmese mission, and sent his
personal emissary back with it to demand that the Burmese king
present himself in person to pay hommage to the Great Khan. King
Narathihapate was so incensed at the haughty attitude of the Chinese
envoys, who apparently were reluctant to remove their shoes in his
presence, that he ordered the execution of the entire Chinese
mission. Word was slow to reach Beijing of this atrocity, and Khubi-
lai’s attention was directed elsewhere. But when the Burmese were
presumptuous enough to invade a former vassal principality that had
submitted to China, Khubilai ordered an invasion to punish this
further insolence. An army was amassed in Chongqing, then the
Mongol administrative centre for Yunnan, and in 1277 descended on
Burma. Narathihapate fled Pagan, earning himself the sobriquet in
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia