them of the change of dynasty and summoning their rulers to acknow-
ledge the new Son of Heaven. In return they were offered formal
investiture and lavish gifts. Among the first to arrive was Emperor
Tran Du Tong of Vietnam (reigned 1341–1369), King of Annam to the
Chinese, who was received with due ceremony. He was followed by
ambassadors from several other Southeast Asian kingdoms: Champa,
Cambodia, Ayutthaya (which had replaced Sukhothai in central Thai-
land), Majapahit, and several coastal principalities in Java, Sumatra
and Borneo.
Hongwu modelled himself on the Confucian ideal of a benevo-
lent ruler, while at the same time proclaiming Ming power and
superiority. This is made abundantly clear in edicts and letters he dis-
patched to subordinate rulers. As Hongwu reminded the Vietnamese
king: ‘In the highest place comes acceptance of the way of Heaven; in
the next, respect for China...’^1 As Son of Heaven, the emperor
desired what Heaven desired, and that was ‘untroubled harmony.’ To
that end, vassal states were required to respect China’s superior status
and maintain peaceful relations with each other. In the event that
they did not, they could expect to be admonished by the emperor, or
even punished by a Chinese military force.
For his part, the emperor committed himself to treating all
peoples justly and impartially. Hongwu assured his tributaries that:
‘Every land on which the sun and moon shine I look on with the same
benevolence.’^2 Nor would China abuse her superior power by taking
aggressive action. Neighbouring kingdoms need have no fear. Their
security was assured simply by accepting Heaven’s way and the
emperor’s commands. Hongwu even listed (in 1395) those countries,
by direction, that China pledged not to attack without provocation.
These included, to the south, all the countries of Southeast Asia,
beginning with Vietnam. The list specifically excluded the nomad
peoples to the north and northwest.
Despite these reassurances and their high moral tone, however,
the Chinese conception of tributary relations and how to enforce them
A Short History of China and Southeast Asia