in it—has been studied over the centuries through writings, reminiscences, and
strategies. The character, responsibilities, and service of these soldiers, from the
earliest of times to the present, are all examined in this work. The forces they
led and the battles they fought are all observed and considered.
In his Military Dictionary (1810), Charles James observes:The best modern generals have never lost sight of the brilliant examples
that they have been left; they have never ceased to call into practice the
tactics of the ancients, as far as the difference of arms and a change of
manners would allow. To those who peruse the histories of the 17th and
18th centuries and read over the actions of the most celebrated gener-
als this observation will appear peculiarly apposite. It is justified in the
uniform conduct of the great Condé, Prince Eugène, Turenne, Marlbor-
ough, Marshal Saxe and Frederick the Great.... Impressed as it were by
the result of cumulative reflection they overlook immediate occurrences,
plunge into futurity and snatch out of the womb of time the ultimate
issue of events.But James wrote this at the dawn of the 19th century. Over the period
of human history, writers have studied the inner workings of the military and
military science. In the sixth century B.c., Sunzi (Sun Tzu) wrote, “An Army
should always be ready but never used.” Napoleon Bonaparte allegedly stated,
“Victory belongs to the most persevering.” A commander, be it of a land or
sea force, stands above all as the leader, the chief officer of his force, the chief
strategist, the chief inspiration for those who follow him. A leader has to em-
body the virtues of wisdom, sincerity, benevolence, courage, and strictness.
As armies have gained in their abilities to fight differing kinds of wars, these
responsibilities and virtues have grown. From the beginning of human history,
when troops marched into battle with spears and knives, to today’s airborne
missiles and machine guns, this role has expanded. This work examines how
these leaders used the tools given them.
While such words as commander or leader are universally understood, the
terms general and admiral have only come into use within the last 500 years.
Thus, such leaders as Nebuchadnezzar, Belisarius, Mark Anthony, Julius Cae-
sar, Gnaeus Pompeius, Nur-ad-Din, Richard Neville, and Alexander Nevsky
are included in this book though none was termed admiral or general. The
custom of so naming commanders of armed forces became common in Europe
in the 16th century, and over time, certain terminology became standard.
The basic fighting unit, a regiment or battalion, was led by a lieutenant
colonel or colonel. Two or more regiments were called a brigade, commanded
by a brigadier general (one star), while two or more brigades formed a division,
commanded by a major general (two stars). Two or more divisions formed an
army corps under a lieutenant general (three stars), while two or more corps
became an army under a general (four stars). As armies and navies became ever
larger, a five-star rank became necessary for commanders in chief with several
armies under their command. In the United States, this officer is titled Gen-xvi introDuCtion