ENJOY A WIDE VARIETY OF NuTRITIOuS FOODS
49Guideline 2
Processed and cured meats can be high in added salt and saturated fat and are not recommended as substitutes
for unprocessed meat. These foods fit in the ‘discretionary foods’ category. lean poultry and eggs can be included
in the diet within the overall recommended quantities for this whole food group.^9 Eggs are an alternative to meat,
a relatively inexpensive source of protein and are versatile foods. Note that although pork is not considered red
meat for marketing purposes in Australia, it is classified as red meat in the international literature, and so has been
considered as red meat for the purposes of these Guidelines.^9
Fish and other seafood are central foods in the cuisines of many traditional cultural and religious groups, and are
popular foods in Australian society. Fish is nutritious, providing energy (kilojoules), protein, selenium, zinc, iodine
and vitamins A and D (some species only) as well as omega-3 lCPuFAs. Evidence of the health benefits of fish
consumption is consistently recognised in international dietary guidelines.35,36,198,360
Nuts and seeds are rich in energy (kilojoules) and nutrients, reflective of their biological role in nourishing
plant embryos to develop into plants. In addition to protein and dietary fibre, they contain significant levels of
unsaturated fatty acids and are rich in polyphenols, phytosterols and micronutrients including folate, several
valuable forms of vitamin E, selenium, magnesium and other minerals. They are nutritious alternatives to meat,
fish and eggs, and play an important role in plant-based, vegetarian and vegan meals and diets.^9
legumes/beans, including lentils, tofu and tempeh, provide a valuable and cost-efficient source of protein, iron,
some essential fatty acids, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre and micronutrients. They are valuable inclusions in
any diet, and are especially useful for people who consume plant-based meals.^9
2.4.2 The evidence for consuming ‘lean meats and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and
seeds, and legumes/beans’
In the following studies, serve sizes of the different foods are as included in the companion resources (see also
Table 2.12, Section 2.4.4).
Table 2.10: Evidence statements for consuming ‘lean meats and poultry, fish, eggs, tofu, nuts and seeds, and legumes/beans’
Evidence statement Grade
Consumption of greater than 100–120 g/day red meat per day is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer. B
Consumption of fish more than once per week is associated with a reduced risk of developing dementia in older adults. B
Consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of renal cancer. C
Consumption of at least two serves a week of fish is associated with reduced risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease,
and with reduced incidence of cardiovascular disease. C
Consumption of fish at least twice a week is associated with a reduced risk of stroke. C
Consumption of fish two or more times per week is associated with reduced risk of age-related macular degeneration. C
Consumption of nuts (65–110g per day) is associated with a reduction in serum cholesterol. C
Notes: Grades – A: convincing association, B: probable association, C: suggestive association
Includes evidence statements and gradings from the Evidence Report (literature from years 2002–2009). Does not include evidence from
other sources, such as the 2003 edition of the dietary guidelines (in which individual studies were classified according to their design as
level I, II or III but overall grades for relationships were not derived), although these sources have been used to inform these Guidelines.
Grade C evidence statements showing no association and all Grade D statements can be found in Appendix E.
lean meats
Past literature reporting on the health benefits and/or risks of consuming meat has been predominantly based on
studies investigating the nutrient effects related to (for example) iron, protein or zinc in isolation^36 or the ability
of the body to absorb nutrients rather than looking at the whole food. Since the 2003 edition of the dietary
guidelines, the evidence linking meat consumption and increased risk of disease has strengthened in some areas
and remains unclear in others. The evidence is difficult to interpret because of widely varying definitions of ‘meat’.
Some studies include only unprocessed red meat. Others may include some or all of a variety of processed
meats, including smoked, salted and chemically preserved foods, with meat within dishes such as pizza, lasagna
or casseroles variously included or excluded. The poor definitions partly explain the often inconsistent findings
in relation to health effects, with several large cohort studies and some Asian studies failing to adequately