ENJOY A WIDE VARIETY OF NuTRITIOuS FOODS
51Guideline 2
The evidence provided below for health benefits relates consistently to fish in the form of finfish from marine or
freshwater sources, either farmed or wild. Few studies have investigated the effects of other types of seafood.
As for red meat, the distinction between different preparation methods and different fish types is not always well
addressed in the literature and may contribute to a lack of consistency in some instances.
Cardiovascular disease
• Incidence and mortality: Evidence suggests that consuming at least two serves of fish per week is
associated with reduced incidence of cardiovascular disease (particularly myocardial infarction) (Grade C;
Evidence Report, Section 9.1)502-505 and with reduced risk of mortality from cardiovascular disease (Grade C;
Evidence Report, Section 9.1).502,504,506-513
• Stroke: The evidence suggests that consumption of fish at least twice a week is associated with a reduced risk
of stroke (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 9.5).505,514-516
• Other cardiovascular conditions: Only a small number of case-control and cohort studies are available, with
inconsistent results, to examine the relationship between fish consumption and the incidence of heart failure,
atrial fibrillation and high blood lipids.
Cancer
Evidence of an association between fish consumption and breast, colorectal, prostate and renal cancer was examined
however no conclusive associations could be drawn (Evidence Report, Sections 9.6, 9.7, 9.8 and 9.9).
Other conditions
• Dementia: The recent body of evidence demonstrates that it is probable that the consumption of fish more
than once a week is associated with a reduced risk of developing dementia in older adults (Grade B; Evidence
Report, Section 9.2).503,517-524
• Depression: The recent evidence suggests that consumption of at least one serve of fish per week is not
associated with reduced risk of depression (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 9.3).525-529
• Macular degeneration: The recent evidence suggests that eating fish two or more times a week is associated
with reduced risk of age-related macular degeneration (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 9.4).^530
Eggs
Since the 2003 edition of the dietary guidelines, the evidence associating egg consumption with health outcomes
has not changed greatly (Evidence Report, Section 11). There do not appear to be any increased health risks
associated with consumption of eggs.531-533 There is recent evidence to suggest that consumption of eggs every
day is not associated with increased risk of coronary heart disease (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 11.1).455,534-551
nuts and seeds
Consumption of nuts and seeds may help reduce the risk of heart disease and is not associated with weight
gain if total energy (kilojoule) intake is controlled.230-235 Since the 2003 edition of the dietary guidelines, the
evidence for the benefits of consumption of nuts and seeds on heart disease has been shown to be related
to favourable effects on serum cholesterol. The evidence on lack of association with weight gain is a new
development (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 8.1).230-235
Cardiovascular disease and excess weight
• Cardiovascular disease: Evidence suggests that consumption of nuts (65–110g per day) is associated with
a reduction in serum cholesterol, a surrogate marker for cardiovascular disease (Grade C; Evidence Report,
Section 8.2).231,232,234,235,552 Results of two large cohort studies report that substituting one serve of nuts for red
meat per day results in a significant reduction (19–30%) in cardiovascular disease risk.553,554
• Excess weight: Evidence suggests that the consumption of nuts (65–110g per day) does not lead to weight
gain, at least in the short term (Grade C; Evidence Report, Section 8.1).230-235