lIMIT INTAKE OF FOODS CONTAINING SATuRATED FAT, ADDED SAlT, ADDED SuGARS AND AlCOHOl
71Guideline 3
3.1.3 How limiting intake of foods high in saturated fat may improve health outcomes
Fat is an energy-dense macronutrient, so consuming too much fat may lead to excess energy (kilojoule) intake
and weight gain;^672 however an individual’s genetic makeup, level of physical activity and other dietary factors
also play a part.^707 Fat cells secrete compounds that influence appetite, inflammation and possibly also cancer
development.708-710 Insulin resistance, reflected in high insulin and glucose levels, is linked to obesity, and leads
to type 2 diabetes. Other cardiovascular disease risk factors such as high cholesterol levels and hypertension
tend to coexist with insulin resistance, a phenomenon often referred to as the metabolic syndrome.7 11
Fatty acids do not only contribute to body fat, different fatty acids influence disease risk factors. Dietary SFAs
and TFAs have been associated with raised plasma lDl cholesterol, and dietary TFAs have been associated with
reduced plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDl) cholesterol.^88 These changes in plasma cholesterol fractions are
established risk factors for coronary heart disease that can be influenced by diet. Raised lDl cholesterol has
been found to be a significant risk factor in at least 50 prospective cohort studies involving more than 600,000
subjects in 18 countries.^712 Several large cohort studies have also demonstrated that reduced HDl cholesterol
is a significant risk factor for coronary heart disease.713,714
PuFA intake appears to reduce coronary heart disease risk,^94 but the balance between omega-6 and omega-3 PuFA
may be important.^715 In addition to their effects on lipid metabolism, PuFA may exert a positive influence on insulin
action, appetite regulation, inflammatory responses, and muscle function.^716 Among the omega-3 lCPuFAs, EPA is
the precursor of the 3 series of prostaglandins and the 5 series of leukotrienes.^717 This suggests anti-inflammatory
and anticoagulant effects, which may explain the protective influences on cardiovascular disease. DHA is found
in high concentrations in the photoreceptors of the retina and the membranes of the brain, with implications for
cognitive development and mental health.^718 Further information on fish sources of omega-3 lCPuFAs can be found
in publications from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO).485,486
3.1.4 Practical considerations: limit intake of foods high in saturated fat
Fats are found in many foods in the five food groups especially nuts and seeds, legumes/beans, avocado, oats,
fish, meat (lean meats), poultry, eggs, milk and cheese. Omega-3 lCPuFA intake can be increased by eating
according to the Foundation Diets and Total Diets. When eating meals outside the home, lower-fat menu choices
are preferable.
The most recent dietary data available in Australia show adults consume 73–101 g/day of fat, with higher intakes
among men and younger age groups.^45 Children consume 51–87 g/day of fat, with intake being higher in older
age groups.^12 The total fat intake of the population has not decreased in recent years, but now constitutes a lower
proportion of overall energy intake due to a relative increase in the consumption of carbohydrates, especially
refined carbohydrates.^152 Intake of total fat, in particular saturated fat, remains higher than recommended.^152
However, the mean total population trans fat intake for Australia is estimated to be 0.5% of total dietary energy,
which is below the WHO population goal of less than 1% of total dietary energy from TFAs.^671
The Guidelines are realistic and practical, allowing a small amount of unsaturated oils and spreads to reflect
culinary behaviour, while ensuring that the energy these foods provide are within the total energy constraints
of the diet. Dietary fat included in the Foundation Diets comes mainly from fish, lean meats, poultry and milk,
yoghurt and cheese products, with a small allowance of unsaturated oils/fats/spreads. Where more energy is
required in moving from Foundation to Total Diets, additional serves of these and/or other foods containing fats
can be included, such as additional nuts and seeds, unsaturated spreads and oils, and/or discretionary foods.
However, where possible, the best choices are foods where unsaturated fats exist in greater quantities than
saturated fats. As well, people who are shorter, smaller or sedentary may have little or no scope within their
usual dietary patterns for any discretionary foods and drinks. The extra energy (kilojoules) provided by these
foods and drinks is an additional reason to limit them.^9
Foods containing predominantly saturated fat such as butter, cream, cooking margarine, coconut and palm oil,
many biscuits, cakes, pastries, pies, desserts, confectionery, processed meats and some commercial burgers,
pizza, fried foods, potato chips, crisps and other savoury snacks should be limited. Increasing the proportion of
unsaturated fats in the diet can be achieved by choosing vegetables, fruit, lean meats and low fat milk, yoghurt
and cheese products, nuts and seeds and using small amounts of unsaturated spreads and oils. Sunflower and
safflower seed, soybean, cottonseed, sesame, corn and grape seed and the spreads and oils made from them
as well as walnuts contain predominantly PuFAs. Canola seeds, nuts, peanuts, rice bran, avocados and olives
and the oils and spreads made from them, contain mainly MuFAs.