How to Write Better Essays

114 Research

Given these arguments, it would seem that humans are distinct

from animals in non-arbitrary ways, that may be difficult to pin

down, but are no less real.

Answer

In this passage most, if not all, the criticisms relate to verbal, rather

than material and logical, fallacies. We’re entitled to ask, ‘Is this what

we mean when we use this concept, or do we mean more than this, or

less?’ Take Frey’s criticism of Singer ’s argument and the cases that he

raises to make his point.

Step 1: Are there exceptions?

When Frey uses the concept of ‘pain’, are there exceptions to this; types

of pain that he doesn’t include within his concept? In other words, is

there just more to it than this? In the case of his friend, the Vietnam

soldier, he appears to use ‘pain’ in a narrow sense, meaning just

physical pain. Yet his friend is, of course, also capable of feeling emo-

tional pain, anguish, insecurity, fear, for himself, his family and his good

name. So, according to Singer ’s principle, he does have interests,

because he can feel pain of this type.

Step 2: If there are exceptions, are they general or specific?

In this case they are general, not specific, so we cannot qualify Frey’s

case to acknowledge special cases. We are driven, then, to consider

Steps 3 or 4.

Step 4: Does it account for only part of the case?

It’s not that the claim is too strong and can be reigned in (as in Step

3), but that it’s too narrow: it only accounts for a limited range of types

of pain. If you were then to extend Frey’s claim to cover the general

category of cases that is currently excluded, this would amount to con-

ceding the argument to Singer.

By the same process you can arrive at all the other criticisms in the

answer below. As you gain confidence with this technique you will be

able to adapt it to your needs and apply it to every question that asks

you to criticise, discuss and evaluate arguments. For example, select

one of the books you prioritised on your reading list for the essay

you’ve chosen to write in these assignments, and complete the fol-

lowing assignment.

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