Environment and aquaculture in developing countries

from aquaculture only if raised under
individual or corporate ownership.
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic
organisms, including fish, molluscs,
crustaceans and aquatic plants. Farming
implies some farm of intervention in the
rearing process to enhance production,
such as regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc.
This definition includes enhanced
fisheries (stock enhancement, aquatic
ranching and management of natural
aquatic environments) within the scope of
production systems considered. FA
(1990b) includes in aquaculture statistics
those "culture-based" fisheries that are
stocked annually with propagated
juveniles, but regards fisheries that are
established through single or intermittent
introductions as contributing to capture
fisheries production.
Aquaculture can be broadly classified
as extensive, having no feed or fertilizer
inputs; semi-intensive, having some
fertilizer andlor feed inputs; andintensive,
largely reliant on feed inputs (Edwards et
al. l988a; Pullinl989). Enhanced fisheries
resemble extensive aquaculture with low
levels of human intervention.
Classification of aquaculture according to
the economic goals or status of culturists -
for example as 'subsistence', 'commercial'
and 'entrepreneurial' - has also been
attempted but is usually confusing. In
much of Asia and Africa, fish is 'the other
staple' (other than grains), the main animal
protein source of the people. All farmers
who try something new and profitable can
be considered 'entrepreneurs' whatever
the scale of their operations. Subsistence
aquaculture barely exists. Virtually all
aquaculture has a profit motive in cash or
in kind.

Developing Countries

and Development

A developing country is defined here

largely as in a UN (1989a) report: all of

Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin

America and Oceania (excluding Australia

and New Zealand). This UN report referred

back to a 1963 UN distinction between

'developed' andidevelsping' countries based

on population growth and pronounced it

still valid:

No other criterion, be it per capita

(sic) income, urbanization, literacy,

industrialization, etc., defines this

dichotomy so sharply as the level of

fertility. With exceedingly few

exceptions, it can be said that where

the gross reproduction rate is greater

than 2.0, the country is a 'developing'

one, and where it is less, the country is

'developed'.

Singapore, the Republic of Korea and

Taiwan are here excluded from the definition

of developing countries.

The Club of Rome recognized the limits

to development.

We are further convinced that

demographic pressure in the worldhas

already attained such a high level, and

is moreover so unequally distributed,

that this alone must compel mankind

to seek a state of equilibrium on our

planet (Meadows et al. 1972).

So, would 'transformati.on' be a better

term than development? Probably not, as

human 'states of equilibrium' are always

highly dynamic. Development can be

defined simply as the betterment of living

standards for the disadvantaged.

Betterment implies improved quality of

life in, for example, health, education and

recreation.

Enuironment

The term 'environment' is defined here

broadly as the whole ecosystem and its

nonliving and living resources, including

human beings.

Sustainability

Sustainability has become a

fundamental consideration for all