Environment and aquaculture in developing countries

the principle of uxorilocality and that of

male governance; the structural opposition

between proximategenerations as a result

of emphasis on the unity of the sibling

group; the division of a mother's loyalties

between her siblinggroup and her children;

and the plitical competition among

uterine brothers for their sisters' loyalty.
These inherent conflicts among principles
of social organization may cause serious
social tensions within small communities
and can be easily exacerbated by
economically beneficial innovations, such
as aquaculture.
As would be anticipated from changing
political, economic, and social conditions,
as well as from the personality traits of
individuals, in few if any societies do
everyday social relationships and patterns
of behavior correspond exactly to such
nominal ideals of social structure.
Monetization, urbanization, industrial-
ization and the resultant migration for
wage labor have been among the principal
factors that have caused major changes in
developing-country social organization.
The principal function of community
leadership with respect to the adoption of
innovation is the ability to mobilize and
then sustain participation, by generating
labor contributions, organizing
infrastructure, interfacing with external
authorities, effecting consensual
decisionmaking and ensuringthe equitable
distribution of benefits, such that
community harmony is maintained.
Goodleadership can speed the adoption
process and ensure its continuity. On the
negative side, however, strong leadership
can sap the initiative of other participants
to develop managerial skills and
overdependence on a single strong
individual leader can imperil long-term
continuity of development. Poor
Panamanian farmers, for example,interact
best when theleader is arespectedmember
of the community but still a peer; i.e., he is
neither so wealthy nor so powerful that he

is no longer regarded as being a member of

the local group (Molnar et al. 1985).

Community Cohesiveness

Factionalism within a community

stemming from social andlor economic

status, caste, or ethnicity, among other

causes, can be a major obstacle to the

successful adoption and dissemination of

an innovation, particularly when access to

commonpropertyresources, suchas water,

is required. In addition to analyzing the

cost-benefits to themselves, individual

households also monitor those for their

group as a whole. Whereas costs and

benefits need not balance exactly for

individual households, a net gain must be

guaranteed by a group (Kikuchi et al.

1978). Further inequities may be

interpretedin the context offormer existing

intra-community conflicts and resultant

factions (Peterson 19821, which tend to

become exacerbated as a consequence. A

positive aspect ofintra-community conflict

and factionalism, on the other hand, is its

possible indication of a healthy level of

social energy which might be harnessable

in support of a well-designed development

project. In contrast, its lack may indicate

lethargic resignation and pessimism

toward innovation, among other negative

traits (Whyte and Albert 1976).

In Panama, for example, although

community aquaculture projects did not

engender any new intra-community

conflicts, some became enmeshedin earlier

ones between members of collective farms

and independent farmers. The latter,

resentful over their exclusion from the

aquaculture development project,

attempted to undermine it. However,

rather than achieving their object they

strengthened the cohesiveness of the

communal farmers, since aquaculture

became a further rallying point in their

ongoing conflict with the independents

(Molnar et al. 1985). Evidence ofthe success