means. More recent artists have tended to follow a
similar pattern. The German artist Klaus Staeck, for
instance, produced a book of photomontages that
used famous images and slogans from advertising
but manipulated the images to give them new mean-
ing. Barbara Kruger, an American artist, takes
images from magazines (many from the post-World
WarIIperiod)andgivesthemnewcaptions.You
Are Not Yourself(1984) shows a woman’s crying
face reflected in a shattered mirror. The words of
the caption appear to be pasted on the image, as if in
a ransom note. Kruger’s technique is quite similar to
Heartfield’s, particularly in the use of the caption.
Here, the image and caption reflect on the reification
of the image of the woman in American advertising.
Tibor Kalman, a Hungarian-born American graphic
designer, used montage techniques in advertising,
but also in advertising-like works that held political
and social messages. Kalman’s design firm was
responsible for a highly controversial series of adver-
tisements for the Italian clothing company, Bennet-
ton, which contained images such as a priest and a
nun kissing, or a Black woman nursing a White
baby. Kalman was also the editor of the magazine,
Colors, which utilized remarkably similar images and
graphics in articles on social issues such a racism and
homophobia. Kalman, unlike many montage artists,
was fully immersed in the advertising world. His
graphic design firm, M&Co. was extremely success-
ful financially, designing corporate annual reports,
commercial packaging, and mainstream advertising
campaigns; yet the political message behind much of
his work and his statements are not easily reconciled
with the corporate work. As media technology has
advanced and sped up over the past 50 years, it has
increasingly borrowed and assimilated both the tech-
niques and the visual arsenal of the montage artist.
Whether or not there is sufficient visual power in
montage to continue as an artistic technique and a
political weapon remains to be seen.
ScarlettHigginsSeealso:Dada; Futurism; Heartfield, John; History
of Photography: Twentieth-Century Developments;
History of Photography: Twentieth-Century Pioneers;
Ho ̈ch, Hannah; Image Construction; Kerte ́sz, Andre ́;
Kruger, Barbara; Man Ray; Manipulation; Photo-
graphic ‘‘Truth’’; Propaganda; SurrealismFurther Reading
Ades, Dawn.Photomontage. London: Thames and Hudson
and New York: Random House, 1976.
Benjamin, Walter. ‘‘Der Surrealismus.’’ InAngelus Novus,
Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1966; As ‘‘Surrealism:
The Last Snapshot of the European Intelligentsia.’’ In
Reflections: Essays, Aphorisms, Autobiographical Writ-
ings. Ed. Peter Demetz, Trans. Edmund Jephcott, New
York: Schocken Books, 1968.
Benjamin, Walter. ‘‘Das Kunstwerk im Zeitalter seiner
technischen Reproduzierbarkeit.’’ In Illuminationen,
Frankfurt: Suhrkamp Verlag, 1955; As ‘‘The Work of
Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction.’’ InIllumi-
nations. Ed. Hannah Arendt, Trans. Harry Zohn. New
York: Schocken Books, 1968.
Buck-Morss, Susan.The Dialectics of Seeing: Walter Benja-
min and the Arcades Project. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1989.
Bu ̈rger, Peter.Theorie der Avantgarde. Frankfurt am Main:
Suhrkamp Verlag, 1974; AsTheory of the Avant-garde.
Trans. Michael Shaw. Minneapolis: University of Min-
nesota Press, 1984.
Caws, Mary Ann.The Surrealist Look: An Erotics of
Encounter. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press, 1997.
Evans, David, and Sylvia Gohl.Photomontage: A Political
Weapon. London: G. Fraser, 1986.
Hoy, Anne H.Fabrications: Staged, Altered, and Appro-
priated Photographs. New York: Abbeville Press, 1987.
Perloff, Marjorie.The Futurist Moment: Avant-garde, Avant
Guerre, and the Language of Rupture. Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1986.
Teitelbaum, Matthew, ed.Montage and Modern Life, 1919–
1942. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.
Waldman, Diane. Collage, Assemblage, and the Found
Object. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1992.MONTAGE