Seealso:Brassai; Conceptual Photography; Con-
structed Reality; Institute of Design; Krauss, Rosa-
lind; Kruger, Barbara; Long, Richard; Moholy-
Nagy, La ́szlo ́
Further Reading
Armstrong Richard, and Richard Marshall, eds.The New
Sculpture 1965–1975: Between Geometry and Gesture.
Exhibition catalogue. New York: The Whitney Museum
of American Art, 1990.
Battcock, Gregory.The New Art. New York: E.P. Dutton
and Co., 1966.
Gravity and Grace: The Changing Condition of Sculpture,
1965–1975. Exhibition catalogue. London: Hayward
Gallery, The South Bank Centre, 1993.
Krauss, Rosalind E.The Originality of the Avant-Garde and
Other Modernist Myths. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
1985.
The Photography of Invention: American Pictures of the
1980s. Exhibition catalogue. National Museum of
American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
DC, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989.
Schimmel, Paul, and Kenneth Baker,Objectives: The New
Sculpture, Newport Beach: Newport Harbor Art Mu-
seum, 1990.
Wallis, Brian, ed.Art After Modernism: Rethinking Repre-
sentation. New York: New Museum of Contemporary
Art, and Boston: David R. Godine, 1984.PICTORIALISM
In March 1902, Alfred Stieglitz organized an exhi-
bition for the National Arts Club in New York
titled ‘‘Pictorial Photography, Arranged by The
Photo-Secession,’’ announcing both that Pictorial-
ism was the highest form of ‘‘modern’’ photography
and that his group, the newly-established Photo-
Secession would ensure the promulgation of this
important movement. The Photo-Secession was
modeled on London’s Linked Ring, which was
founded in 1892 (disbanded in 1909) and had had
a major role in the development and dissemination
of Pictorialism, which had begun to emerge during
the last decades of the nineteenth century in Great
Britain and on the continent.
Pictorialism was a widespread and influential
movement of the early years of the twentieth cen-
tury. It sought to elevate photography to fine-art
status through the use of uniquely photographic
means to create images that mimicked the formal
qualities of the established fine arts media, notably
painting. It is recognizable for its soft-focus look
and limited range of tones, often evoking sugges-
tive, atmospheric qualities.
The term itself had roots in the leading figure in
British photography of the mid-nineteenth century,
Henry Peach Robinson’s influential bookPictorial
Effect in Photography(1869), which encouraged
photographers to reflect traditional, painterly prin-
ciples of composition and depiction. It came into
wide usage in the last decade of the nineteenth
century, generally meaning any sort of photogra-
phy that showed fine-arts aspiration by its subject
matter—often nature or genre scenes, but including
allegorical studies, portraits, especially those of
women and children, and the nude—or specific
technical attributes, most often the use of the more
‘‘artistic’’ gum bichromate and bromoil processes.
Pictorialism was also associated with the naturalis-
tic style promulgated by nineteenth century photo-
grapher and theoretician Peter Henry Emerson,
who encouraged the capturing the ‘‘truth’’ as only
the ‘‘scientific’’ medium of photography was able to
do, yet presenting that truth in a soft-focus, more
painterly style.
Stieglitz was one of the most important spokes-
men and sponsors of Pictorialism in the twentieth
century as it later became more narrowly associated
with his Photo-Secession group, which included
Gertrude Ka ̈sebier, Clarence H. White, Edward
Steichen, Frank Eugene and Alvin Langdon Co-
burn, George H. Seeley, and Anne W. Brigman.
His interdisciplinary art magazine,Camera Work,
founded in 1903 and exhibitions mounted at the 291
gallery, also known as the Little Galleries of the
Photo-Secession, opened in 1902 had great influ-
ence in spreading the international influence of the
movement as well as upon the introduction of mod-
ern art to America.PHOTOGRAPHY AND SCULPTURE