Jahresgaben; Bonner Ku ̈nstverein; Bonn, Germany
1990 New Work: A New Generation; San Francisco Museum
of Modern Art; San Francisco, California
1991 Typologies: nine contemporary photographers; New-
port Harbor Art Museum; Newport Beach, California
(traveled to Akron Art Museum; Akron, Ohio; and The
Corcoran Gallery of Art; Washington, D.C.)
Metropolis; Martin-Gropius-Bau; Berlin, Germany
1992 Documenta IX; Kassel, Germany
Qui, Quoi, Ou`; Muse ́e d’Art Moderne de la ville de
Paris; Paris, France
More than one photography; Museum of Modern Art;
New York, New York
Photography in Contemporary German Art: 1960 to the
Present; Walker Art Center; Minneapolis, Minneapolis
(traveled to Dallas Museum of Art; Dallas Texas; Mod-
ern Art Museum of Fort Worth; Fort Worth, Texas; The
Saint Louis Art Museum; Saint Louis, Missouri; Gug-
genheim Museum SoHo; New York, New York; The
Lannan Foundation; Los Angeles, California; Museum
Ludwig; Cologne, Germany; Museum fu ̈r Gegenwarts-
kunst; Basel, Switzerland; and Louisiana Museum of
Modern Art; Humlebaek, Denmark)
1994 the act of seeing [urban space]; Fondation pour l’Archi-
tecture; Brussels, Belgium
1995 The Institute of Cultural Anxiety; ICA; London, England
1996 by night; Fondation Cartier pour l’art contemporain;
Paris, France
SpacedOut;Ku ̈nstverein Mu ̈nchen; Munich, Germany
The Rethymnon Centre for Contemporary Art; Crete,
Greece
1997 Engel, :Engel;Ku ̈nsthalle Wien; Vienna, Austria
Pro Lidice; Ceske Muzeum; Prague, Czech Republic
1998 ARTIST’S PROOF; Kaiser-Wilhelm-Museum; Kre-
feld and Kunsthalle Nu ̈rnberg, Germany
1999 UNDER/EXPOSED; Stockholm Underground; Stock-
holm, Sweden
2001 Mies in Berlin; Museum of Modern Art; New York,
New York and Altes Museum; Berlin, Germany
The Inward Eye: Transcendence in Contemporary Art;
Contemporary Arts Museum; Houston, Texas
2002 The Citigroup Privat Bank Photography Prize 2002;
The Photographers’ Gallery; London, England
Vertigo; Leo Castelli; New York, NY
Paises – 25th Bienal de Sao Paulo; Sao Paulo, BrazilSelected Works
Portrait, C. Pilar, 1988
Portrait, Stoya, 1986
House (Haus) Nr 1.1, 1987
Stars (Stern) 20h 54m / -55, 1990
Night (Nacht) 14 I, 1993
Other Portrait (Anderes Portrait) Nr. 71/65Further Reading
Boym, Per, Ute Eskildsen, and Valeria Liebermann.Tho-
mas Ruff: 1979 to Present. Edited by Matthias Winzen.
New York: Distributed Art Publishers (DAP), 2003.
Durand, Regis.Thomas Ruff. Paris: Centre national de la
Photographie, 1997.
Flosdorff, Caroline, and Michael Sto ̈ber.Thomas Ruff:
Machines/Maschinen. Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz Pub-
lishers, 2004.
Freidus, Mark.Typologies: Nine Contemporary Photogra-
phers. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, 1991.PHOTOGRAPHY IN RUSSIA AND
EASTERN EUROPE
The map of late twentieth-century Eastern Europe
included Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Czech Republic,
Croatia, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Mace-
donia, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovak Republic,
Slovenia, and the Ukraine. This article primarily dis-
cusses the development of photography in the former
Czechoslovakia (now Czech Republic), Hungary,
Poland, and the countries that used to be the part
of Soviet Union. The main distinction in the devel-
opment of photography in the Eastern Bloc countries
from other European countries is the presence of the
Communist totalitarian regimes that to a lesser or
greater extent impeded the development of experi-
mental movements and encouraged the exploration
of topics related to the life of workers and peasants.
Another influential aspect was the inability of artists
to communicate with their colleagues around the
world and to travel outside Eastern Europe.
Within Eastern Europe, there were two major mo-
dels of development. The first occurred in countries
of the former Soviet Union that fell under Commu-
nist rule relatively early in the 1920s and 1930s, and
whose photo histories were homogenized by the
Soviet system. These countries, for example UkraineRUFF, THOMAS