struggle against martial law wasprzy Kosciele(at
the Church’s side), ironically called ‘‘art in the ves-
tibule.’’ It organized exhibitions in the churches of
major cities throughout Poland. Photographers
including Mariusz (Andrzej) Wieczorkowski (one
of Poland’s most intriguing photographers still little
known to Western audiences), Pawel Kwiek, Zofia
Rydet, Erazm Ciolek, and Anna B. Bohdziewicz
played an important role in these exhibitions. To
commemorate these events of the 1980s, Bohdzie-
wicz kept a Fotodziennik (Photojournal)—a record
of events private and public that has been shown at
many exhibitions both in Poland and abroad.
Photo documentary series by Zofia Rydet (1911–
1997) that she began in the 1960s after viewingThe
Family of Manexhibition introduced the concept of
‘‘sociological photography.’’ By the time of her
death, Rydet had collected thousands images of Po-
lish citizens taken mostly against of the background
of their homes.
Conceptual photography became an important
practaice in the Soviet Union during the 1970s and
1980s. F. Infantov attempted to document human
actions, and by doing so ‘‘constructed’’ the images.
Igor Makarevich created images that recall close-
ups from a movie, using his self-portrait as a cen-
tral motif. Finally, S. Borisov exercised full control
of the images by acting as a film director of his
theatrically inspired subject matter.
After Gorbachev’s opening of the Iron Curtain,
Olga Sviblova curated a number of exhibitions in
Russia and abroad. Her goal was to reacquaint
Russian audiences with avant-garde photography
and to show new trends. Outside Russia, she exhib-
ited those artists who continued to experiment even
during Communism. She became a founding direc-
tor of the Moskovskii Dom Photographii (Moscow
House of Photography) in 1996, one of the most
active cultural institutions in Russia. Being both a
collecting and exhibiting institution, MDF has a
collection of about 70,000 original prints from
1850 until the present day, including those of both
Russian and international photographers. In recent
years, Russian photographers have turned to such
topics as the mythologizing of the artists’ personal-
ity, questioning and reinterpreting previously estab-
lished themes, and blending photography with
theatre and video installations. For instance, A.
Schul’gin challenged the notion of documentary
photography by creating artistic depictions of heavy
industrial machinery. From the 1960s to the pre-
sent, Boris Mikhailov (1938–) has blended docu-
mentary and staged elements in the same image,
creating mocking political commentary on life
in his native Soviet Ukraine. In the 1997–1998 ser-
ies,Case History, for instance, he showcased the
dreary, unhappy life of homeless people in his
native city of Kharkov. His recent and best known
series,If I were a German, deals with the themes of
Eros, victory, power, and domination ,and it refer-
ences what arguably remains the most important
event in twentieth century Ukrainian history:
World War II. Photo and media artist Victoria
Begalskaya criticizes the gloomy reality of post-
Soviet Ukraine. In one of her recent projects, she
uses the metaphor of garbage to suggest the quality
of life of those living in poverty. Moscow artist
Tatiana Liberman employs staged and straight
photography to create avant-garde-inspired com-
positions that emphasize the metaphysical charac-
teristics of objects.
In 1989, the Polish government lifted censorship
of the arts. Drastic economic changes initially
decreased artistic activity, however. In 1990,Foto-
grafia and Foto(Photography and Photo), the only
magazine in Poland dedicated to photography,
ceased publication. By the end of the 1990s, as
Poland’s economic situation improved, two institu-
tions still continue to be influential: Zwia ̨zek Pols-
kich Artysto ́w Fotografiko ́w (ZPAF) (Association
of Polish Photographic Artists) founded in 1947 to
unite those photographers who practiced profes-
sionally; and Fotoklub Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej
(Photoclub of the Polish Republic), the central
club for amateur organizations throughout the
country. The practices of the 1990s and 2000s vary
from photo and light installations, performance,
and video art to the ‘‘elementary photography’’
movement, which uses early twentieth-century pho-
tographic techniques to challenge dependence on
digital media. Thanks to Stefan Wojnecki (1929–),
who promoted photography by teaching at the
Academy of Fine Arts at Poznan, the city has re-
cently emerged as an important photographic cen-
ter. Two photo biennials were organized in Poznan,
in 1998 and 2000.
Some of the young nations of Eastern Europe are
now attempting to create formal programs for
teaching photography and cultivating young talent.
For instance, in 1991, in the Slovak Republic, which
recently emerged from its union with the Czech
Republic, the Department of Visual Media at the
Academy of Fine Arts and Design (VSˇVU) was
initiated. Slovak photographic style has been char-
acterized as ‘‘commenting and adapting’’ by art
critic Lucia Lendelova (Lendelova, 2003). As of
2003, most Slovak photographers were educated
outside of the Slovak Republic. Among the best
images of the recent two decades are Robo Kocˇan’s
series of human faces portrayed as a set of inter-RUSSIA AND EASTERN EUROPE, PHOTOGRAPHY IN