da Vinci clearly described the camera obscura
which he calledoculus artificialis in reference to
its commonalties with the eye. He also suggested
overcoming the problem of the reversed image by
projecting it on a sheet of thin paper and viewing it
from behind.
The person most often credited, though incor-
rectly, with developing the camera obscura is the
sixteenth century Neapolitan scientist, Giovanni
Battista Della Porta. This is because the camera
obscura was described in detail in his book,Magiae
Naturalis, one of the best known works on popular
science from that time. Della Porta was the first to
describe camera obscura as an aid to artists
attempting to draw from life. Though he was not
the first to do so, he took advantage of develop-
ments to the camera obscura, such as the use of an
optical lens instead of a simple hole, which brigh-
tened and sharpened the image. He also used a
mirror, which, by reflecting the image, corrected
its earlier reversal. Della Porta created theatrical
pageants that took place directly outside the dar-
kened room, with sets and costumed characters.
Once his audience’s eyes adjusted to the darkness
of the room, what they saw was truly cinematic.
Projected before them was a drama acted out by
miniature two-dimensional characters. They were
in awe. Those who disbelieved Della Porta’s expla-
nation of the illusion even accused him of sorcery.
As the camera obscura became more popular, it
took new forms. Rather than a specially con-
structed permanent room or building: smaller,
more portable versions were made. Some were
small rooms light enough to be carried on rails by
two men, like a sedan chair. The astronomer
Johann Kepler, who actually coined the phrase
‘‘camera obscura,’’ had a portable tent camera
that he used when making a topographical survey
of Upper Austria in the 1620s.
Very tiny versions were also developed. One was
inset into the stem of a goblet. Through the use of a
small mirror, an image was projected onto the sur-
face of the wine (white), so that the host could keep
an eye on his guests: arguably the predecessor to
the modern day surveillance camera. The most
popular version of the camera obscura, however,
was just small enough for a person to carry under
one arm. These had a frosted glass or translucent
screen onto which the image was projected (much
like a view camera), eliminating the need to be in
an enclosed room.
Many seventeenth and eighteenth century artists
were interested in the camera obscura’s ability to
essentially replicate, though monocularly, human
vision. It helped them to achieve perfection on
difficult to render perspectives. Notables among
these artists were Jan Vermeer (1632–1675) and
Canaletto (1697–1768). The extent to which they
used the camera to create their precise paintings
remains controversial to this day.
At this point the camera obscura was essentially
the prototype for the modern camera. The only
change needed was a way to load it with film.
Both Nice ́phore Nie ́pce and William Henry Fox
Talbot used camera obscuras to expose their var-
ious light sensitive materials and produce the first
photographs. With this, a major shift in the cam-
era’s role in the world occurred. A light and che-
mical reaction took the place of the artist’s pencil.
Instead of being an instrument for observing, and
possibly drawing a subject, an act still somewhat
subjective, it became instead a recorder of a
‘‘truth’’: the creator of a subject itself.
Camera obscuras live on today. Around the
world there still exist some walk-in camera
obscuras whose function is both entertainment,
observation (most of these are in areas of splendid
views), and education. Some contemporary artists,
such as Ann Hamilton, Vera Lutter, and Abelardo
Morell still create work using the phenomenon.
But the camera obscura’s true descendant is the
modern camera. Be it film or digital, large format or
movie camera, the basic structure and concept of the
camera has remained the same through the centu-
ries: a light-tight box into which light, admitted
through an opening, strikes a parallel surface and
projects an image. Unlike in centuries past however,
the image, no longer fleeting, can now be kept intact.
ROGERSayre
Seealso:Camera: Overview; Photographic ‘‘Truth’’Further Readings
Fish, Peter. ‘‘The Magic of the Great Camera Obscura.’’
SunsetFebruary 1997, 14.
Gernsheim, Helmut, and Allison Gernsheim.The History of
Photography 1685–1914. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1969.
Hockney, David.Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the Lost
Techniques of the Old Masters. London: Thames and
Hudson, 2001.
Sinnott, Roger W. ‘‘A 6-Inch Camera Obscura.’’Sky and
TelescopeJanuary 1997, 96.
Steadman, Philip.Vermeer’s Camera. Oxford University
Press, 2001.
Surdin; V. and M. Kartashev. ‘‘Light in a Dark Room.’’
QuantumJuly/August 1999, 40.CAMERA OBSCURA