sional film cleaning fluids are available and can be
used carefully with a swab to gently remove dirt.
Tears and rips in prints can be repaired with con-
servation tape, which should always be applied to
the back of the picture. Pressure sensitive tapes
such as Sellotape or Scotch brand ‘‘magic’’should
be avoided, as they will become brittle with age
and leave brown stains that can be virtually
impossible to remove. Retouching vintage prints
is controversial on ethical grounds, and pigments
used in retouching can cause damage from sulfur
and other contaminants.
Good processing, a stable environment, and
conservation standard storage materials are essen-
tial aids for the preservation of photographic
objects, supported by common sense, careful hand-
ling, and respect. Observation of these rules can
ensure that modern photographs should last long
after the lifetime of the originator with little
recourse to the professional conservator, and will
greatly reduce the deterioration of older images
until a conservator can assess them. Conservation
of photographic images is now entering a new
phase with the introduction of digital media. In
some cases the image does not exist outside of the
computer’s hard drive or other storage medium
such as CD-ROM or memory cards, until the
image is digitally printed. Technical advances
mean that both hardware and software quickly
become out of date and valuable images may not
be retrievable if stored in older formats. In general
terms the good conservation practices already
mentioned should be followed. CDs should be
stored in stable, cool, dark, dry, dust free condi-
tions away from UV radiation, in acid free sleeves.
They should be handled with lint-free gloves,
avoiding touching the information carrying sur-
face, and cleaned with a lint free cloth from the
middle outwards. However only time will tell how
stable these ‘new’ image carrying devices are, and
the longevity of digital inks and papers, and only
trial and error by the conservator will lead to good
care and conservation practices.
SarahMcDonald
Seealso: Darkroom; Developing Processes; Film;
Non-Silver Processes; ToningFurther Reading
Ball, Stephen, Susie Clark and Peter Winsor.The Care of
Photographic Materials & Related Media. London:
Museums & Galleries Commission, 1998.
Clark, Susie.Photographic Conservation. London: National
Preservation Office, 1989.
Gill A.T.Photographic Processes. Information Sheet 21,
London: Museums Association, 1978.
Hendriks, Klaus B.Fundamentals of Photographic Conser-
vation: A Study Guide. Toronto: National Archives of
Canada and Lugus Publications, 1986.
McCormack-Goodhart, M.H. ‘‘The Allowable Tempera-
ture and Humidity Range for Safe Use and Storage of
Photographic Materials.’’ inThe Journal of the Society
of Archivists, vol. 17, no. 1.
Museums & Galleries Commission. Standards in the
Museum Care of Photographic Collections. London:
MGC, 1996.
Public Record Office.An Introduction to Nineteenth and
Early Twentieth Century Photographic Processes, Lon-
don: PRO.
Rempel, Siegrfried.The Care of Black and White Photo-
graphic Collections: Identification of Processes. Ottawa:
Canadian Conservation Institute, 1979.
Rempel, Siegrfried.The Care of Photographs. USA: Nick
Lyons Books, 1987.
Swan, A.The Care and Conservation of Photographic Mate-
rial. London: Crafts Council, 1981.CONSTRUCTED REALITY
Generally, there are two types of constructed reali-
ties: those that are fabricated and photographs,
which are the result of photographing a specifically
constructed stage. Fabricated imagery is produced
by techniques like combination printing, montage,
and photomontage to invent a scene or event that
never existed or took place. ‘‘Set-up’’ or staged
photography, also referred to astableauxor direc-
torial photography, involves the artist creating a
‘reality’ or ‘stage’ upon which they organize and
arrange subjects and/or props in a particular way
for the intention of photographing it. While allCONSTRUCTED REALITY