Focusing aids magnify a small section of the
projected negative, which helps the photographer
adjust the fine-focus control to achieve as clear
focus as is possible from his negative. There are
several types of focusing aids, one of which is
known as a grain finder. Grain finders come in
various powers of magnification, and allow the
photographer to see individual grains on the pro-
jected image rather than relying on a whole section.
They are particularly useful for printing images that
might not be in sharp focus themselves: as long as
the photographer has fine-focused the grains, he can
be assured that any areas of soft-focus that occur on
his final print come not from the focusing of the
projected negative, but are faithful representations
of areas of soft-focus on the negative itself.
The projected image from the enlarger falls
directly under the lens onto the enlarger’s base
(unless, of course, the image is being projected ho-
rizontally). The photo-sensitive material being ex-
posed is, in the case of photographic paper, generally
held in an easel. The easel is comprised of an opaque
base and a metal or plastic frame, which is either a
fixed-size or adjustable. The frame holds down the
edges of the photographic paper to ensure a flat sur-
face for the negative to be projected onto. When
focusing the negative, it is prudent to use a piece of
the same-thickness paper to focus onto (often the
back of a previously developed print works well) so
that your focus will not change when you insert the
unprocessedphotographicpaperintotheeaselbefore
you makeyour timedexposure.
Enlargers are generally separated into two types:
condenser and diffusion. In condenser enlargers, the
light from the light source is concentrated and direc-
ted straight through the negative by one or more
condensing lenses. Condenser enlargers create im-
ages that are more sharply focused and show more
contrast than images from diffusion enlargers.
Scratches and defects on a negative are more diffi-
cult to disguise when using a condenser enlarger.
Diffusion enlargers employ the use of a diffusion
screen or diffusing surface between the light source
and the negative. Rather than concentrating the light
rays straight down through the negative, diffusion
screens, or reflected light from diffusion surfaces,
scatter the light so that it is not traveling in parallel
rays when it hits the negative. Diffusion enlargers
create an overall softening of the focus of the image
and help to mask defects on the negative. While
much black-and-white printing is done with conden-
ser enlargers, color printing and black-and-white
portraiture are often done with diffusion enlargers.
Enlargers come in various sizes to accommodate
various sizes of negatives. Also, interchangeable
lenses are available so that the same enlarger can
be used to print 35 mm and medium-format 120
film. In general, printing 35 mm negatives requires
a 50 mm lens, 120 film requires a 75–105 mm lens,
and 45-inch film requires a 135–150 mm lens.
Enlarger lenses are intended to work at close range
and on a flat field, but are generally like camera lenses.
Although the photographer cannot control shutter
speed because there is no shutter on enlarger lenses,
he can control the size of the aperture withf-stops like
those on his camera. The adjustment of shutter speed
that would be made on a camera is replaced by the
adjustment of exposure time on an enlarger. Usually,
an external timer is employed to ensure consistent
exposure time. Some timers, connected directly to
the enlarger, automatically turn on and off the enlar-
ger light, though a photographer can also choose to
work with a foot pedal that controls the light.
Some enlargers can accommodate below-the-lens
filter holders, while others can take above-the-lens
filters. Filters are used to achieve a variety of effects;
for example, the contrast of black-and-white nega-
tives can be amplified or reduced with graded yellow
and magenta filters. Using filters from the yellow end
of the spectrum accomplishes a reduction in contrast
in a print; this can be useful if the print seems to be
overly-contrasted, often from harsh lighting condi-
tions at the time that the film was shot. Filters that
are more densely magenta-colored succeed in adding
contrasttoanimage,andareoftenusedifthefilm
was shot on a grey day or is underexposed.
Enlargers are useful not only because they allow
for darkroom manipulation of color or contrast of
a negative, but because they provide ample oppor-
tunity for other darkroom manipulations, such as
dodging or burning-in areas on a print. Multiple
enlargers (or switching negatives in the same enlar-
ger) can be used to expose multiple images onto
one piece of photographic paper before it is pro-
cessed. Without an enlarger, a photographer is
restricted to making contact prints, where the size
of the final print is determined by the size of the
negative. With an enlarger, the photographer can
make final prints of almost any size, regardless of
the size of his negative.
JENNYALLREDRedmann
Seealso:Burning-In; Contact Printing; Darkroom;
Dodging; Filters; Lens; Manipulation; Multiple Ex-
posures and PrintingFurther Reading
International Center for Photography Encyclopedia of
Photography. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc., 1984.ENLARGER