should be capable to understand the postmodern
inversion of the supposedly stable relation between
subject and object of representation, as well as its
historical and cultural implications and perver-
sions. Thus, photography, rather than being just a
new entry in the lexicon of visual history, calls for
the revision and re-consideration of traditional aes-
thetic categories.
During the course of his life, Flusser published
numerous essays on a wide range of topics and
many books, writing in German and Portuguese.
Among them,Fu ̈r eine Philosophie der Fotografie
(‘‘Towards a philosophy of photography’’), 1983,
explores the implications for human society of the
transition from writing culture to image-culture.
Die Schrift(‘‘Writing’’), 1989, asks what is lost if
the alphanumeric code of writing is superseded. In
1992, Flusser’s ‘‘philosophical autobiography’’ was
published under the titleBodenlos(‘‘Bottomless’’).
Nachgeschichte (‘‘Post-History’’), 1993, considers
the different implications of ‘‘the end of history’’
in the post-industrial world.
VANGELISATHANASSOPOULOSSeealso:Barthes, Roland; Image Theory: Ideology;
Photographic ‘‘Truth’’; Postmodernism; Representa-
tion; Semiotics
Biography
Born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1920. Studied philosophy
at Charles University, Prague, 1939. Fled Czechoslova-
kia to England, 1939–1940; immigrated to Sao Paulo,
Brazil, 1941. Completed education at University of Sao
Paolo. Member of the Brazilian Institute of Philosophy,
1962; appointed Professor of Philosophy of Communi-
cations, at FAAP (School of Communications and
Humanities) University of Sao Paolo, 1963; co-editor
of theBrazilian Philosophical Review, 1964. Special dele-
gate of the Brazilian Ministry for Foreign Affairs for
cultural cooperation with the United States and Europe,- Relocated to Italy, 1972; France in 1976. Professor
of Philosophy, University of Aix-en-Provence; visiting
professor at various European and American Universi-
ties. Died in Prague, Czechoslovakia, 1991.
Selected Works
Von der Freiheit des Migranten: Einspru ̈che gegen den Natio-
nalismus, 1994,The freedom of the migrant: objections to
nationalism, translated by Kenneth Kronenberg, 2003
Schriften, 1993,Writings: Selections, edited by Andreas
Stro ̈hl, translated by Erik Eisel, 2002
Fu ̈r eine Philosophie der Fotografie, 1983,Towards a philo-
sophy of photography, translated by Anthony Mathews,
2000
Die Schrift: hat Schreiben Zukunft?, 1989
Gesten: Versuch einer Pha ̈nomenologie, 1991
Ende der Geschichte, Ende der Stadt?, 1992
Bodenlos : eine philosophische Autobiographie, 1992
Vom Stand der Dinge : eine kleine Philosophie des Design,
1993,The shape of things: a philosophy of design, 1999
Nachgeschichte: eine korrigierte Geschichtsschreibung, 1993
Kommunikologie, 1996
Medienkultur, 1997Further Reading
Sander, Klaus, ed.Vile ́m Flusser, Zwiegespra ̈che: Interviews
1967–1991.Go ̈ttingen: European Photography, 1996.FORMALISM
Formalism in the visual arts is a philosophy of
aesthetics first formulated in its modern form in
the early part of the twentieth century by such
British Bloomsbury Group writers as Clive Bell
and Roger Fry. Bell’s and Fry’s theories had arisen
from the consideration of painting, but the basic
notions of formalism could be applied to other two-
dimensional forms, and were soon being used to
examine and understand photography.
The basis for the theories of Bell and Fry was
simply that representation was irrelevant to paint-
ings’ value as an art form, that is, what the work de-
picted was not what made a work of art great.
Applying his ideas to the whole of art history in hisFLUSSER, VILE ́M