Performance Management 221Motivator - Hygiene Theory Frederick Herzberg (1964, 1968) concluded
that people have two different categories of needs that are essentially
independent of each other and affect behavior in different ways. He
found that when people were dissatisfi ed with jobs, they were concerned
about the environment in which they were working. When they felt
good about their jobs, this had to do with the work itself.
The first category of needs he referred to as environment , hygiene , or
maintenance factors: hygiene because they describe people ’ s environment and
serve the primary functions of preventing job dissatisfaction and maintenance
because they are never completely satisfi ed and therefore have to be main-
tained. Agency policies, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal
relations, money, status, and security are referred to as hygiene factors
because they are not an intrinsic part of the job but are related to the con-
ditions under which a job is performed. These factors do not contribute to
productivity; they only prevent losses in worker performance due to work
restriction, which is why they are called maintenance factors. When these
factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfi ed, but neither will they be
satisfi ed. According to this theory, to motivate people on their jobs, factors
associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly related from it, such
as promotional opportunities, opportunities for personal growth, recognition,
responsibility, and achievement, should be emphasized.
The second category of needs is referred to as motivators. Motivators
seem to be effective in motivating people to superior performance. These
factors involve feelings of achievement, professional growth, and recog-
nition that people can experience in a job. They are called motivators
because they appear to have a positive effect on job satisfaction.Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories of motivation concentrate more on the cognitive and
behavioral processes behind motivation. They suggest that a variety of
factors may serve as motivators, depending on the needs of the individual,
the situation, and the rewards for the work done.Expectancy Theory
An early model of expectancy theory was developed by Victor H. Vroom
(1964). Expectancy theory holds that the force to act in a certain way results