waterways, and oceans. The Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, in Ecosystems and Human Well Being Syn-
thesis, summarized the ecosystem implications:
Over the past 50 years, humans have changed these
ecosystems more rapidly and extensively than in any
comparable period of time in human history, largely
to meet rapidly growing demands for food, fresh wa-
ter, timber, fiber, and fuel. This transformation of the
planet has contributed to substantial net gains in hu-
man well-being and economic development. But not
all regions and groups of people have benefited from
this process—in fact, many have been harmed. More-
over, the full costs associated with these gains are only
now becoming apparent (2005, 1).These “full costs” include many undesirable devel-
opments – such as the emergence and/or rapid spread
of disease and invasive species, further declines in wa-
ter quality, expansion of “dead zones” in coastal wa-
ters, and the collapse of regional fisheries (Reid 2005).
Natural Resources Access Pathway
Another important pathway, linking natural
resources and conflict, relates to access to natural
resources, and/or the value obtained from these re-
sources. Many conflicts stem from groups of stake-
holders, often local populations in the vicinity of the
resource, having insufficient access to the resource
and/or insufficient means, through economic, social
or political institutions, to peacefully address their
grievances. High value products, such as rare and pre-
cious minerals and high value agricultural crops, often
associated with illicit trade (e.g., coca, poppies), are
especially subject to conflicts over access and wealth
distribution. Recent conflicts in Africa (Sierra Leone,