tion, including issues related to defense facilities and
weapons, but also to some civilian industries, and to
managing infectious diseases. The Montreal Protocol,
signed in 1987 and substantially amended in 1990 and
1992 (Ciesin), in the 1990s marked a successful effort
to negotiate reductions in harmful chlorofluorocar-
bons, or CFCs, that damage the ozone layer. Inter-
national agreements on the handling and disposal of
nuclear warheads and wastes, treaties on chemical
and biological weapons, and planning for coordinated
responses to pandemics are other areas of successful
international cooperation for mutual security.
As the Cold War ended, defense spending was cut,
leaving a “peace dividend” that could be reallocated.
There was a new emphasis on “waging peace.” The
United States and Europe focused attention on envi-
ronmental restoration as part of the post-Cold War
policy. The United States helped create and support
an Environmental Center in Budapest, Hungary, to
assist Eastern Europe recover from the massive envi-
ronmental destruction resulting from Soviet industrial
practices and conditions left by the retreating Soviet
regime. Revelations coming from post-Soviet Bloc
countries, as well as Russia, served as strong examples
of the need for greater attention to environmental im-
pacts in military as well as industrial planning. West-
ern military and civilian departments provided expert
advice on many issues, including methods for envi-
ronmental assessment, prioritization, and cleanup. In
1994, the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
Scholars in Washington D.C. created the Environmen-
tal Change and Security Program, which produced
studies and created a forum for discussion among
the policy elite of Washington (Wilson International
Center for Scholars 2011). In 1990, the North Atlan-
tic Treaty Organization (NATO), under its Commit-
sharon
(sharon)
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