Many Russians are exposed continually to un-
healthy conditions. Half of all Russians, and up to as
much as 70% in some areas, use substandard water.
About half of the infrastructure for water distribu-
tion needs to be replaced. A project of this magnitude
would take decades to complete. Russia has no na-
tional system of water management (Sinitsyna 2007b).
Many regions have surface water polluted to levels
many tens of times above permissible levels. Only 12-
14% of Russia’s lakes and rivers are clean. Groundwa-
ter is about 30% polluted and continues to deteriorate
(Yablokov 2010, 2). Industrial and municipal reser-
voirs are often shared; both treated and untreated
water is returned, increasing risk to any downstream
users. Both municipal wastewater and industrial pol-
lutants are a threat to water safety. Untreated human
and animal waste is a source of pollution and periodic
contamination in cities. People with immunodeficient
conditions can be particularly vulnerable to parasitic
contaminants. The Volga River, the longest river in
Europe, is highly polluted with untreated wastewa-
ter, industrial pollutants, and spills that affect its sedi-
ment and its fish. The Volga’s current environmental
deterioration is the source of the ecological disaster in
the Caspian Sea, which receives over 85% of its fresh
water from the Volga (Henry and Douhovnikoff 2008,
443-4).
Government air pollution data are incomplete and
deemed unreliable for several reasons. Independent-
ly published data are limited. According to one 2007
study, particulates alone might be associated with 6%
of urban deaths, that is, 88,000 people annually (Henry
and Douhovnikoff 2008, 447). One of every two people
is negatively affected by airborne particulates. Offi-
cial figures show that approximately 60% live in areas
sharon
(sharon)
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