Controlled observation can also be used to
assess communication patterns between couples or
spouses. Instead of relying on distressed couples’
self-reports of their communication problems,
researchers may choose to actually observe commu-
nication styles in a controlled setting. Specifically,
partners can be asked to discuss and attempt to
resolve a moderate relationship problem of their
choosing (e.g., partner spends too much money
on unnecessary things) while researchers observe
or videotape the interaction behind a one-way mir-
ror. Although not a substitute for naturalistic obser-
vation of conflict and problem solving in the home,
researchers have found this controlled observation
method to be a useful and cost-effective means of
assessing couples’interaction patterns.
Case Studies. Thecase study methodinvolves the
intensive study of a client or patient who is in treat-
ment. Under the heading of case studies we include
material from interviews, test responses, and
treatment accounts. Such material might also include
biographical and autobiographical data, letters, diaries,
life-course information, medical histories, and so on.
Case studies, then, involve the intensive study and
description of one person. Such studies have long
been prominent in the study of psychological prob-
lems and in the description of treatment methods.
The great value of case studies resides in their richness
as potential sources of understanding and as hypothe-
sis generators. They can serve as excellent preludes to
scientific investigation (see Box 4-1).
Over the years, many case studies have been
influential in establishing our understanding of
clinical phenomena. Following are some classic
examples:
The Case of Dora(Freud, 1905/1953a) taught us
about the concept of resistance in therapy.
The Case of Little Hans(Freud, 1909/1955)
extended our understanding of phobias.
The Three Faces of Eve(Thigpen & Cleckley,
1957) outlined the anatomy of multiple
personalities.BOX4-1 Clinical Applications: What Case Studies Can Tell Us About Phobias and Early Trauma- Specific phobias are unreasonable fears that are
out of proportion to any real danger to the individual.
Many learning theorists believe specific phobias are
acquired through classical conditioning. As a prototypic
experiment, these theorists often cite the classic Wat-
son and Rayner (1920) study of Little Albert. Albert was
conditioned to fear white rats by discovering that each
time he began to play with one, a loud and unpleasant
noise occurred. Over trials, Albert developed what
appeared to be a full-blown phobia of rats and similar
furry objects.
However, Davison, Neale, and Kring (2004) have
noted that despite what learning theory seems to teach
us, clinical reports and histories fail to support the Little
Albert model. Although some specific phobias could
develop in that manner, they usually occur without any
prior frightening experiences in the situation. Individ-
uals who fear elevators, snakes, or high places rarely
report an early bad experience with such places or
things. It is not clear that laboratory research on specific
phobias is carried out in real-enough settings for
researchers to say that the laboratory imitates real life. - Everybody“knows”that early childhood
trauma is likely to predispose us to unhappiness and
failure. Take the following example:
A girl who is plain and lacks grace; whose mother
favors her two younger brothers; whose mother
nagged her, creating constant feelings of shame
and estrangement; whose father left home when
she was young; whose mother died when the girl
was only 9, leaving her in the care of a grand-
mother; whose grandmother kept her away from
other children and deprived her of most of her
childhood; who was so lonely that her only pur-
suits were reading, daydreaming, and walking.
Such a person must be ripe for failure, emotional
problems, or perhaps destined to become a social mis-
fit (White, 1976). But as White asks wryly, who is it we
are describing? It is none other than Eleanor Roosevelt,
depicted by White (1976) as“the champion of the poor
and the oppressed; ultimately [becoming] chairman
[sic] of the committee which drew up the United
Nations Declaration of Human Rights”(p. 522).
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