Clinical Psychology

both the individual and the clinician. For example, a
lack of friendships or of relationships because of a lack
of interpersonal contact would be considered indica-
tive of social dysfunction, whereas the loss of one’sjob
or failing grades because of emotional problems (e.g.,
depression) would suggestoccupational dysfunction.
According to the disability/dysfunction/
impairment definition, both of these cases would
suggest the presence of abnormal behavior. Richard
is completely dependent on his wife (social dysfunc-
tion), and this, coupled with his litany of somatic
complaints and his inability to cope with stress, has
left him unemployed (occupational dysfunction).
Phyllis’s drug habit has interfered with her
occupational (in this case, school) functioning.

Advantages of This Definition. Perhaps the
greatest advantage to adopting this definition of
abnormal behavior is that relatively little inference
is required. Problems in both the social and occu-
pational sphere oftenpromptindividuals to seek out
treatment. It is often the case that individuals come
to realize the extent of their emotional problems

when these problems affect their family or social

relationships as well as significantly affect their per-

formance at either work or school.

Problems with This Definition. Who should

establish the standards for social or occupational dys-

function? The patient, the therapist, parents, teachers,

friends, or an employer? In some ways, judgments

regarding both social and occupational functioning are

relative—not absolute—and involve a value-oriented

standard. Although most of us may agree that having

relationships and contributing to society as an employee

or student are valuable characteristics, it is harder to

agree on what specifically constitutes an adequate

level of functioning in these spheres. In short, achieving

a reliable consensus about the nature of an individual’s

social relationships and contributions as a worker or

student may be difficult. Recognizing this problem,

psychopathologists have developed self-report invento-

ries and special interviews to assess social and occupa-

tional functioning in a systematic and reliable way.

To summarize, several criteria are used to

define abnormal behavior. Each criterion has its

The Case of Richard Z.

Richard was convinced by his wife to consult with a

clinical psychologist. Previous contacts with psychia-

trists had on one occasion resulted in a diagnosis of

“hypochondriacal neurosis”and, on another, a diag-

nosis of“passive aggressive personality.”Richard has

not worked in several years, even though he has a

bachelor’s degree in library science. He claims that he is

unable to find employment because of his health. He

reports a variety of physical symptoms, including diz-

ziness, breathlessness, weakness, and“funny”sensa-

tions in the abdominal area. Making the rounds from

physician to physician has enabled him to build an

impressive stock of pills that he takes incessantly. None

of his physicians, however, has been able to find any-

thing physically wrong with him.

As a child, Richard was the apple of his mother’s

eye. She doted on him, praised him constantly, and

generally reinforced the notion that he was someone

special. His father disappeared about 18 months after

Richard was born. His mother died 6 years ago, and he

married shortly after that. Since then, his wife has

supported both of them, thus enabling him to finish

college. Only recently has she begun to accept the fact

that something may be wrong with Richard.

The Case of Phyllis H.

Phyllis is a college student. She is in her sixth year of

undergraduate study but has not yet obtained a degree.

She has changed majors at least four times and has also

had to withdraw from school on four occasions.

Her withdrawals from school have been associated

with her drug habit. In two instances, her family placed

her in a mental hospital; on two other occasions, she

served short jail sentences following convictions on

shoplifting charges. From time to time, Phyllis engages in

prostitution to support her drug habit. Usually, she can

secure the money from her parents, who seem to have an

uncanny knack for accepting her outrageous justifica-

tions. She has been diagnosedwith“antisocialpersonality

disorder”and with“drug dependence (cocaine).”

138 CHAPTER 5