Clinical Psychology

and McKinley in 1943, it is still considered the pre-
eminent self-report inventory (Butcher, 2010). The
MMPI has been used for virtually every predictive pur-
pose imaginable, ranging from likelihood of episodes of
psychosistomarriagesuitability.Whatisevenmore
staggering, Graham (2006) estimates that more than
10,000 studies on the MMPI have been published.
Despite all its success over the years, it was decided
that the MMPI needed updating and restandardization.
TheresultwasthenewMMPI-2 (Butcher,
Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, & Kaemmer, 1989).

Description: MMPI. When Hathaway and
McKinley developed the MMPI, their basic purpose
was to identify the psychiatric diagnoses of indi-
viduals. Items were assembled from previously pub-
lished tests of personality, from case histories, and
from clinical experience. This pool of items was
administered to non-clinical individuals (more than

700 visitors to University of Minnesota hospitals)

and psychiatric patients (more than 800). The follow-

ing psychiatric categorieswere used: hypochondriasis

(Hs), depression (D), hysteria (Hy), psychopathic

deviate (Pd), paranoia (Pa), psychasthenia (Pt), schizo-

phrenia (Sc), and hypomania (Ma). Two additional

scales, masculinity–femininity (Mf) and social intro-

version (Si) were added later. It is important to note

that these scale names reflect a diagnostic classification

system that was used in the 1940s and 1950s but is

now antiquated. To translate all these diagnostic labels

into more meaningful terms, refer to Table 8-3.

The original MMPI was composed of 550 items to

which the patient answers“true,”“false,”or“cannot

say.”Only those items that differentiated a given clini-

cal group from a non-clinical group were included. For

example, items were retained if they distinguished indi-

viduals with depression from non-clinical individuals,

or individuals with schizophrenia from non-clinical

T A B L E 8-3 Simulated MMPI Items

Clinical Scales Simulated Items (Answered True)

Hypochondriasis (Hs)
(Excessive concern with bodily functions)

“At times I get strong cramps in my

intestines.”

Depression (D)
(Pessimism, hopelessness, slowing of action and thought)

“I am often very tense on the job.”

Hysteria (Hy)
(Unconscious use of physical and mental problems to avoid conflicts or
responsibility)

“Sometimes there is a feeling like

something is pressing in on my head.”

Psychopathic Deviate (Pd)
(Disregard of social custom, shallow emotions, inability to profit from
experience)

“I wish I could do over some of the

things I have done.”

Masculinity–Femininity (Mf)
(Items differentiating between traditional sex roles)

“I used to like to do the dances in

gym class.”

Paranoia (Pa)
(Abnormal suspiciousness, delusions of grandeur or persecution)

“It distresses me that people have the

wrong ideas about me.”

Psychasthenia (Pt)
(Obsessions, compulsiveness, fears, guilt, indecisiveness)

“The things that run through my

head sometimes are horrible.”

Schizophrenia (Sc)
(Bizarre, unusual thoughts or behavior, withdrawal, hallucinations, delusions)

“There are those out there who want

to get me.”

Hypomania (Ma)
(Emotional excitement, flight of ideas, overactivity)

“Sometimes I think so fast I can’t keep

up.”

Social Introversion (Si)
(Shyness, disinterest in others, insecurity)

“I give up too easily when discussing

things with others.”

SOURCE: Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI). Copyright © 1942, 1943, (renewed 1970) by the University of Minnesota. Adapted items repro-
duced by permission of the University of Minnesota Press.

224 CHAPTER 8