The influence and utility of this reconceptuali-
zation remain to be seen. In any case, empirical data
supporting the utility and incremental validity of
data generated by the Rorschach “method” are
still necessary before its routine use in clinical set-
tings can be advocated.
The Thematic Apperception Test
TheThematic Apperception Test (TAT)was introduced
by Morgan and Murray in 1935. It purports to reveal
patients’basic personality characteristics through the
interpretation of their imaginative productions in
response to a series of pictures. Although the test is
designed to reveal central conflicts, attitudes, goals,
and repressed material, it actually produces material
that is a collage of these plus situational influences,
cultural stereotypes, trivia, and so on. The clinician’s
job is to separate the wheat from the chaff.
Most clinicians use the TAT as a method of
inferring psychological needs (for achievement,
affiliation, dependence, power, sex, etc.) and of
disclosing how the patient interacts with the envi-
ronment. In contrast to the Rorschach, the TAT is
used to infer the content of personality and the
mode of social interactions. With a TAT, clini-
cians are likely to make specific judgments, such
as“This patient is hostile toward authority figures,
yet seeks their affection and approval.”The TAT
is less likely to be used to assess the degree of mal-
adjustment than to reveal the locus of problems,
the nature of needs, or the quality of interpersonal
relationships.
Description. There are 31 TAT cards (one is a
blank card); most depict people in a variety of situa-
tions, but a few contain only objects. Some are said
to be useful for boys and men, some for girls and
women, and some for both genders. Murray sug-
gested that 20 of the 31 cards be selected for a given
examinee. As a test, the TAT does not appear to be
as ambiguous or unstructured as the Rorschach.
However, though the figures in the pictures may
clearly be people, it is not always clear what their
gender is, exactly who the figures are, what they are
doing, or what they are thinking.
Several additional instruments based on the
TAT have been developed for administration to
youth. The Roberts Apperception Test includes
cards with animated drawings of adults and children.
These cards typically do not portray gender in an
ambiguous fashion, and often the drawing clearly
depicts a specific activity (e.g., a conflict). The Chil-
dren’s Apperception Test is quite similar to the
Roberts Apperception Test, however all cards depict
animals engaged in anthropomorphic activities. Since
children often enjoy telling stories, and often are
asked to make up stories based on pictures in school
assignments, these tests are usually enjoyed by youth.
However, many clinicians use them to develop rap-
port with children and perhaps generate initial
hypotheses about the child’s thinking processes. For-
mal scoring of the Roberts Apperception Test or
Children’s Apperception Test is rarely conducted.Administration. In practice, clinicians typically
select somewhere between 6 and 12 TAT cards for
administration to a given patient. Although the exact
instructions used vary from clinician to clinician,
they go something like this:“Now, I want you to
make up a story about each of these pictures. Tell
me who the people are, what they are doing, what
they are thinking or feeling, what led up to the
scene, and how it will turn out. OK?”The patient’s
productions are transcribed verbatim by the clinician
(or sometimes tape-recorded). In some instances,
patients may be asked to write out their stories, but
this can result in shorter-than-normal stories.Scoring. Many scoring techniques have been
proposed over the years (Exner, 1983; Lilienfeld,
Wood, & Garb, 2000; Shneidman, 1965). It seems
that most clinicians have chosen to accept the judg-
ment that quantified scoring systems cause clinically
useful evidence to be distorted or lost and use such
systems only for research purposes. Interestingly,
the TAT has never been as soundly criticized as
has the Rorschach. This may be partially due to
the fact that there has never been much interest in
or emphasis on scoring the TAT; it is hard to carry
out empirical studies that fail to support underuti-
lized scoring systems.242 CHAPTER 8