(Wolpe & Lazarus, 1966). Take the spectator at a
basketball game who cannot see because the person
in front constantly jumps up. To react by saying“If
you don’t sit down, I’m going to knock you down”
is aggressive. But saying“Please, I wish you would sit
down; I just can’tseeanything” is an assertive
response. Indeed, assertiveness training has been use-
ful in teaching overly aggressive persons gentler and
more effective ways of meeting their needs.
Contingency Management
A variety of Skinnerian or operant techniques are all
referred to as contingency managementprocedures.
They share the common goal of controlling behav-
ior by manipulating its consequences. Because
many children are brought by their parents to
receive psychological treatment, particularly for
“acting-out” or rule-breaking behavior, contin-
gency management techniques are used very com-
monly with child and adolescent patients.
Techniques. Contingency management can take
many forms, of which the following are just a few
examples.
- Shaping: A desired behavior is developed by
first rewarding any behavior that approximates
it. Gradually, through selective reinforcement
of behavior more and more closely resembling
the desired behavior, the final behavior is
shaped. This technique is sometimes called
successive approximation. - Time-out: Undesirable behavior is extinguished
by removing the person temporarily from a
situation in which that behavior is reinforced.
A child who disrupts the class is removed so
that the disruptive behavior cannot be rein-
forced by the attention of others. - Contingency contracting: A formal agreement or
contract is struck between therapist and patient,
specifying the consequences of certain beha-
viors on the part of both. - “Grandma’s rule”: The basic idea is akin to
Grandma’s exhortation,“First you work, then
you play!”It means that a desired activity is
reinforced by allowing the individual the
privilege of engaging in a more attractive
behavior. For example, the child is allowed to
play ball after homework is completed. This
method is sometimes referred to as thePremack
principle(Premack, 1959).Token Economies. The operant approach is
most commonly used by parents who wish to
teach their children to engage in appropriate behav-
ior. However, these techniques also can be used
among adults and youth who are in residential care
(e.g., individuals with mental retardation or chronic
mental illness) (Kazdin, 1977; Liberman, 1972;
Spiegler & Guevremont, 2010). Such programs
can make an institution a more livable place that
ultimately is more conducive to therapeutic gains.
In establishing a token economy, there are
three major considerations (Krasner, 1971). First,
there must be a clear and careful specification of
the desirable behaviors that will be reinforced. Sec-
ond, a clearly defined reinforcer (or medium of
exchange—e.g., colored poker chips, cards, or
coins) must be decided upon. Third, backup rein-
forcers are established. These may be special privi-
leges or other things desired by the patient. Thus,
two tokens, each worth 10 points, might be
exchanged for permission to watch TV an extra
hour, or one token worth 5 points might be
exchanged for a piece of candy. It goes without
saying that a token economy also requires a fairly
elaborate system of recordkeeping and a supervising
adult that is very observant and committed to the
importance of the program.
Token economies are used to promote desired
behavior through the control of reinforcements.
Whether the desired behavior is increased neatness,
greater social participation, or improved job perfor-
mance, the probability of its occurrence can be
enhanced by the award of tokens of varying
value. But why use tokens at all? Why not reinforce
proper bed-making directly? The reason is essen-
tially that the effect of reinforcement is greater if
the reinforcement occurs immediately after the
behavior occurs. If the reward of attending a
movie occurs 10 hours after a patient sweeps out410 CHAPTER 14