clinical experience by requirements such as 5-year
practica. A good description and history of Psy.D.
programs have been provided by Peterson (1997,
2003). Currently, there are more than 60 accredited
doctoral programs in clinical psychology that offer
the Psy.D., and an increasing percentage of doc-
torates awarded in clinical psychology are Psy.D.
degrees. In fact, more Psy.D degrees are awarded
each year in clinical psychology (over 1,300) than
are Ph.D. degrees. Clearly, Psy.D. programs have
gained a strong foothold in the profession.
Early on, there were concerns that graduates
with a Psy.D. degree might be seen as less qualified
than those with Ph.D.s for professional practice and
have more trouble finding employment. However,
this has not been the case (Norcross, Castle, Sayette,
& Mayne, 2004). In an effort to further explore dif-
ferences between Psy.D. and Ph.D. programs in clin-
ical psychology, Norcross et al. (2004) conducted a
survey. Some of the differences found included a
higher acceptance rate of applicants to Psy.D. pro-
grams (41% vs. less than 15%), a lower percentage of
Psy.D. faculty with a cognitive-behavioral theoreti-
cal orientation, a lower percentage of Psy.D. students
receiving full financial assistance (20%), a lower per-
centage of Psy.D. students obtaining an internship
(74%), but a shorter period of time to complete the
Psy.D. degree (M 5.1 years).
More recent data on differences between Ph.D.
and Psy.D. programs concerning acceptance rates,
enrollment, and degrees awarded from 2009 to
2010 (Kohut & Wicherski, 2010) indicate that
these differences remain. Although the average
number of applications for each type of program
are similar, Psy.D programs accept more applicants
each year (Mdn 47 vs. 8), enroll more students
each year (Mdn 28 vs. 6), have more students in
the program (Mdn 130 vs. 39), and award more
doctoral degrees each year (1,350 vs. 1,222) than do
Ph.D. programs in clinical psychology.
Professional Schools
Although the Psy.D. model represents a clear break
with tradition, an even more radical innovation is
the development of professional schools. Many of
these schools have no affiliation with universities;
they are autonomous, with their own financial
and organizational framework. Often referred to
as “freestanding” or “for-profit” schools, most
offer the Psy.D. Most schools emphasize clinical
functions and generally have little or no research
training in the traditional sense. Faculty are chiefly
clinical in orientation. The first such freestanding
professional school was the California School of
Professional Psychology (Dorken, 1975), founded
by the California State Psychological Association.
Now called Alliant International University, this
school has nine campuses (three of which are inter-
national) and offers several mental health degrees.
In 1987, there were 45 professional schools in
operation, awarding several hundred of the 3,000
yearly clinical doctorates (Strickland, 1988). Today,
there are about twice as many professional schools,
and each year over 60% of the doctorates in clinical
psychology are awarded by professional schools
(1,574 vs. 919; Kohut & Wicherski, 2010)! The pro-
portion of doctorates in clinical psychology awarded
by professional schools has increased dramatically
over time. These programs tend to admit far more
students (sometimes over 100!) than traditional
university-based scientist-practitioner programs.
How many professional schools ultimately will
survive is still uncertain. One of their greatest
problems is stability of funding. Many such institu-
tions must depend on tuition as their chief source of
funds, which may not generate enough money to
make them financially secure. In contrast, the
majority of university-based Ph.D. programs
waive tuition completely for graduate students.
Professional schools also often depend heavily on
part-time faculty whose major employment is
elsewhere—a shaky foundation for an academic
structure. As one consequence, it sometimes is dif-
ficult for students to have the frequent and sustained
contacts with their professors that are so vital to a
satisfactory educational experience.
Although some professional schools are fully
accredited by the APA, they are the exception
rather than the rule. This is a major handicap that
such schools will have to overcome if their gradu-
ates are to find professional acceptance everywhere.62 CHAPTER 3