with separation in adolescence. Further, Minuchin et al. (1978) argued that although
optimum autonomy does not mean breaking all bonds between mother and daughter,
mother–daughter relationships that permit poor autonomy for both parties may be
predictive of future psychopathology. Further, Bruch (1974) argued that anorexia may
be a result of a child’s struggle to develop her own self-identity within a mother–
daughter dynamic that limits the daughter’s autonomy. Some authors have also exam-
ined the relationship between autonomy, enmeshment and intimacy. For example,
Smith et al. (1995) argued that an increased recognition of autonomy within the
mother–daughter relationship corresponds with a decrease in enmeshment and a
resulting increase in intimacy. Further, it is suggested that such intimacy may be
reflected in a reduction in conflict and subsequent psychological problems (Smith et al.
1995). A recent study directly explored whether the mother–daughter relationship was
important in terms of a ‘modelling hypothesis’ (i.e. the mother is body dissatisfied and
therefore is the daughter) or an ‘interactive hypothesis’ (i.e. it is the relationship itself
between mother and daughter that is important). Therefore, it examined both the
mothers’ and the daughters’ own levels of body dissatisfaction and the nature of the
relationship between mother and daughter (Ogden and Steward 2000). The results
showed no support for the modelling hypothesis but suggested that a relationship in
which mothers did not believe in either their own or their daughter’s autonomy and
rated projection as important was more likely to result in daughters who were dissatisfied
with their bodies.
Therefore, it would seem that body dissatisfaction may come from the media. Further,
it may be related to social factors such as ethnicity, social class and the mother’s own
body dissatisfaction. In addition, it is possible that the impact of such social factors is
mediated through psychological factors such as beliefs and the nature of relationships.
Research has suggested that all these factors illustrate a central role for the need for
control.The role of control
Beliefs relating to materialism, competitiveness, achievement, autonomy, the role of
women and a projected relationship between mother and daughter all have one thing
in common. They are based on the assumption that the object of these beliefs (i.e. the
daughter) has control over her destiny. It is being assumed that she can achieve, she can
compete and she can fulfil the desires of others if only she were to put her mind to it;
anything can be achieved if the effort is right. This is quite a lot of pressure to place on
anyone. It is particularly a lot of pressure to place upon a woman who may well feel that
the world is still designed for men. And it is even more pressure to place upon a young
woman who may feel that the world is designed for adults. Such expectations may result
in feelings of being out of control: ‘how can I achieve all these things?’, ‘what do I have
to do?’, ‘I can never fulfil everyone’s demands’, ‘my world is simply not that open to
change’, ‘things are not that controllable’. However, the one thing that we are led to
believe can be changed is our body. A family’s beliefs may make us want to control
and change a whole range of factors. But the only factor which may seem controllable
may simply be the way we look. In fact the media constantly tells us that this is so.152 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY