action process approach (HAPA, see Chapter 2), which places self-efficacy in a central
role for predicting behaviour. In addition, this model may be particularly relevant to
condom use as it emphasizes time and habit.
Problems with social cognition models
Many of the problems highlighted by the HBM are also characteristic of other social
cognition models (see Chapter 2 for a detailed discussion). These problems can be
summarized as follows:
1 Inconsistent findings. The research examining condom use has not produced con-
sistent results. For example, whereas Fisher (1984) reported an association between
intentions and actual behaviour, Abraham et al. (1991) did not. Joseph et al. (1987)
suggested that condom use is predicted by peer norms, whereas Catania et al. (1989)
found that it is not. Furthermore, Catania et al. (1989) reported that condom use
relates to perceived severity and self-efficacy, but Hingson et al. (1990) said that it
does not relate to these factors. However, such studies have used very different popula-
tions (homosexual, heterosexual, adolescents, adults). Perhaps models of condom use
should be constructed to fit the cognitive sets of different populations; attempts to
develop one model for everyone may ignore the multitude of different cognitions held
by different individuals within different groups.
2 Sex as a result of individual cognitions. Models that emphasize cognitions and
information processing intrinsically regard behaviour as the result of information
processing – an individualistic approach to behaviour. In particular, early models
tended to focus on representations of an individual’s risks without taking into
account their interactions with the outside world. Furthermore, models such as the
HBM emphasized this process as rational. However, recent social cognition models
have attempted to remedy this situation by emphasizing cognitions about the indi-
vidual’s social world (the normative beliefs) and by including elements of emotion
(the behaviour becomes less rational).
3 Perception of susceptibility. In addition, these models predict that because people
appear to know that HIV is an extremely serious disease, and they know how it is
transmitted, they will feel vulnerable (e.g. ‘HIV is transmitted by unprotected sex, I
have unprotected sex, therefore I am at risk from HIV’). This does not appear to be the
case. Furthermore, the models predict that high levels of susceptibility will relate to
less risk-taking behaviour (e.g. ‘I am at risk, therefore I will use condoms’). Again this
association is problematic.
4 Sex as an interaction between individuals – the relationship context. Models of
condom use focus on cognitions. In attempts to include an analysis of the place of
this behaviour (the relationship), variables such as peer norms, partner norms and
partner support have been added. However, these variables are still accessed by
asking one individual about their beliefs about the relationship. Perhaps this is still
only accessing a cognition not the interaction.
5 Sex in a social context. Sex also takes place within a broader social context,
involving norms about sexual practices, gender roles and stereotypes, the role of
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