Controllability: People tend to use problem focused coping if they believe that the
problem itself can be changed. In contrast they use more emotion focused coping if
the problem is perceived as being out of their control (Lazarus and Folkman 1987).
Available resources: Coping is influenced by external resources such as time, money,
education, children, family and education (Terry 1994). Poor resources may make
people feel that the stressor is less controllable by them resulting in a tendency not to use
problem focused coping.
Measuring coping
The different styles of coping have been operationalized in several measures which
have described a range of specific coping strategies. The most commonly used
measures are the Ways of Coping checklist (Folkman and Lazarus 1988) and Cope
(Carver et al. 1989). The coping strategies described by these measures include the
following:
Active coping (e.g. ‘I’ve been taking action to try to make the situation better’)
Planning (e.g. ‘I’ve been trying to come up with a strategy about what to do’)
Positive reframing (e.g. ‘I’ve been looking for something good in what is happening’)
Self-distraction (e.g. ‘I’ve been turning to work or other activities to take my mind off
things’)
Using emotional support (e.g. ‘I’ve been getting emotional support from others’)
Substance use (e.g. ‘I’ve been using alcohol or other drugs to help me get through it’)
Behavioural disengagement (e.g. ‘I’ve been giving up trying to deal with it’)
Denial (e.g. ‘I’ve been saying to myself “this isn’t real”’)
Self-control (e.g. ‘I tried to keep my feelings to myself’)
Distancing (e.g. ‘I didn’t let it get to me. I refused to think about it too much’)
Escape/avoidance (e.g. ‘I wished that the situation would go away’).
Some of these strategies are clearly problem focused coping such as active coping and
planning. Others are more emotion focused such as self control and distancing. Some
strategies, however, are a mix of both problem and emotion focused. For example, positive
reframing involves thinking about the problem in a different way as a means to alter the
emotional response to it. Some strategies can also be considered approach coping such as
using emotional support and planning whereas others reflect a more avoidance coping
style such as denial and substance use.
According to models of stress and illness, coping should have two effects. First, it
should reduce the intensity and duration of the stressor itself. Second, it should reduce
the likelihood that stress will lead to illness. Therefore effective coping can be classified as
that which reduces the stressor and minimizes the negative outcomes. Some research has
addressed these associations. In addition, recent research has shifted the emphasis away
from just the absence of illness towards positive outcomes.
STRESS AND ILLNESS 271