ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
equity will require measures to help poor and disadvantaged groups, and
that these groups should have the opportunity to define their own basic
needs. Although this democratic message was particularly aimed at devel-
oping countries, the encouragement of community participation through
consultative processes, citizen initiatives and strengthening the institutions
of local democracy is equally applicable in developed countries. It is vital
that all local interests, whether poor inner-city or isolated rural communi-
ties, can participate in policy and planning decisions, such as urban devel-
opment and transport planning, that have a direct effect on their lifestyles.
Democracy can also play an important legitimation role, particularly in
richer countries, where it is necessary to win public support for environ-
mental initiatives that may have a detrimental effect on lifestyles, such as
new eco-taxes or the regulation of car use. If information is widely available
and people can participate in decision-making, they may come to see the
need for action and be more willing to accept sacrifices in their material
quality of life.The precautionary principle
In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be
widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are
threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall
not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
environmental degradation. (Agenda 21, Principle 15 (UNCED 1992 ))The sustainable development paradigm deals with the complexity and uncer-
tainty that surrounds so much environmental policymaking, particularly
where technical and scientific issues are involved, by insisting on the
widespread application of the precautionary principle. This principle states
that the lack of scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for post-
poning measures to prevent environmental degradation.
The precautionary principle is consistent with the notion of ecological
sustainability in that it is about relieving pressure on the environment and
giving it more ‘space’. It is also a practical expression of intergenerational
equity because to protect the world for our descendants we need to be sure
that our actions will not cause irreparable harm to the environment. The
debate around genetically modified organisms provides a good illustration
of this issue (see Durant and Boodphetcharat 2004 ). The great promise of
GM crops is that by increasing agricultural productivity they can make a
real contribution to preventing food shortages in the poorest countries of
Africa, Asia and Latin America. Yet GMOs are also characterised by chronic
uncertainties about the possible threat they pose to ecosystems (see Box- 2). Should companies be given free rein to develop these products, as has
largely been the case in North America, or should governments invoke the
precautionary principle to justify a step-by-step approach employing strict