Green political thoughtposition. In short, a green theory of agency can be grounded in a green
theory ofvalue.
Whether this interpretation enriches ecologism is open to debate. Eckers-
ley’s argument, despite the reference to enhancing the autonomy of ‘non-
humans’, seems self-consciously anthropocentric. It is also explicitly individ-
ualistic, since autonomy is precisely the value made paramount in liberal
individualism. Giving moral priority to individual autonomy seems odd in
an environmental theory. But it may be that encouraging individual human
autonomy is the bestmeanstothesustainable society because it can con-
tribute to changing the way people behave (although it is through exercis-
ing our autonomy as consumers that we have caused many of the ecological
problems we face today).
Alternatively, greens might argue that change should be justified to fur-
ther thewidersocialgood, rather than to allowindividualautonomy to flour-
ish. Thus another ‘green’ riposte to Goodin might hold that ecologism is not
only about sustainability, but also about creating the good society in which,
forexample, self-interested materialism is rejected as morally unacceptable.
Wereturn to these two arguments below in examining whether participa-
tory democracy, decentralisation and social justice and, briefly, non-violence
(see Box3.7)are the political arrangements most suitable to bring about
sustainability.
Critical question 3
Do green ‘ends’ justify the ‘means’?
◗ Must green politics be democratic?
The uneasy relationship between ecological concerns and democracy is a cen-
tral issue in green political theory, and a good example of the means/ends
debate. Most greens declare that democracy, specifically participatory democ-
racy, is a core principle of ecologism. However, if Goodin is correct, the pri-
macy of the ecological imperative might justify sacrificing democratic princi-
ples to protect the planet. This kind of consequentialist thinking underpins
theeco-authoritarian argument of the survivalists that ecological imper-
atives such as population growth and resource depletion demand swift,
decisive and drastic government action (see Box3.1). A strong authoritar-
ian government, unhampered by the need to win elections or protect liberal
rights, might coerce self-interested individuals into acting in the collective
interest by, say, producing fewer children and living more frugal lifestyles.
Most contemporary greens find these authoritarian solutions repugnant
and want to rule them out of court for contravening the ecological principle
of democracy. Yet on what grounds is democracy a core green principle?
After all, it is obvious that democratic procedures may not always generate
environmentally beneficial outcomes. For example, most experts agree that