Green political thoughtscience over other forms of knowledge and understanding of ecological
issues, and gives power to an elite minority. Whilst technical knowledge
is, of course, critical in many ecological decisions, it provides only part of
thepicture. A wide range of alternative perspectives and considerations –
non-technical, local, ethical, social, political – should also be included in
thedecision-making process to ensure a more informed decision that can
attract widespread support (Barry1999a:199–201). Greens argue that partic-
ipatory democracy offers the best means of including these factors in the
decision process.
The case for participatory democracy starts from a critique of liberal
democracy. Greens argue that liberal democracy is unable to produce the
best decisions because it is characterised by hierarchy, bureaucracy, individ-
ualism and material inequalities. It offers limited opportunities to partici-
pate in the public sphere. For example, Porritt ( 1984 ) complains that ‘The
representative element of the system has insidiously undermined the ele-
ment of participation, in that turning out to vote now and then seems to
have become the be-all and end-all of our democracy’ (p. 166). Consequently,
liberal democracy nurtures an atomised individualistic focus on the private
sphere, which makes it a poor breeding ground for the ecological conscious-
ness and responsible citizenship needed to bring about a sustainable society.
Greens want to replace representative democracy with participatory demo-
cratic procedures based on a discursive or deliberative model (see Dryzek
1990 ;Smith 2003 ). These radical forms of democracy presume active cit-
izen participation in governance in institutions such as political parties,
local government, neighbourhood assemblies, voluntary associations and
theworkplace. The green case thus plugs into a much broader tradition of
radical democratic theorising in seeking a society where widespread par-
ticipatory democracy means citizens are fully, freely and actively involved
in the decisions that shape their lives (Pateman 1970 ;Barber 1984 ). Greens
frequently invoke the ancient Greek city state, or more contemporary exam-
ples such as the New England town meeting (Tokar 1992 :104), to argue that
face-to-face democracy would produce communities that are more in tune
with, and therefore considerate towards, their natural environment.
Greens employ two related arguments to support the claim that partic-
ipatory democracy will result in beneficial environmental outcomes. First,
participatory democracy should produce more responsive government. Insti-
tutions would be more responsive and accountable because power would be
shifted away from the hands of the few: from central government to local
communities, from managers to workers, from the central party bureaucracy
tothelocal branch (Goodin 1992 :127–8). Environmental protection would
be improved if more people had a say because the decision-making process
would draw on a wider range of interests (i.e. beyond the political, business
and professional elites who currently dominate). The greater diffusion of
information necessary for participatory democracy to operate will provide
more ammunition for local communities to protect their environment and,